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UNIT-1
Part-A
Introduction
Education in its general sense is a form
of learning in
which the knowledge,
skills, and habits of
a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through
teaching, training, or research. Education frequently takes place under the
guidance of others, but may also be autodidactic.
In its broad
sense, education refers to any act or experience that has a formative effect on
the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual…In its technical
sense education is the process by which society, through schools, colleges,
universities, and other institutions, deliberately transmits its cultural
heritage–its accumulated knowledge, values, and skills–from one generation to another.”
- GEORGE F.KNELLER
Meaning of Education:
According to some learned people, the
word "Education" has been derived from the Latin term
"Educatum" which means the act of teaching or training. A group of
educationists say that it has come from another Latin word "Educare"
which means "to bring up" or "to raise".
According to a few others, the word
"Education" has originated from another Latin term
"Educere" which means "to lead forth" or "to come
out". All these meanings indicate that education seeks to nourish the good
qualities in man and draw out the best in every individual. Education seeks to
develop the innate inner capacities of man.
By
educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable knowledge,
understanding, skills, interests, attitudes and critical 'thinking. That is, he
acquires knowledge of history, geography, arithmetic, languages and sciences.
Definitions of Education:
v "Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body.
It develops man's faculty, especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy
the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty of which perfect
happiness essentially consists.
·
-Aristotle
v “Education is the process of living through a continuous
reconstruction of experiences.”
§ -John Dewey
Meaning of Psychology:
-
The word, „Psychology‟ is derived
from two
Greek words,
„Psyche‟
and „Logos‟. Psyche means „soul‟ and „Logos‟ means „science‟.
Thus psychology was first defined as
the „science of soul”.
-
According to earlier
psychologists, the function of psychology was to study the nature, origin and
destiny of the human soul. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be
seen, observed and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul.
Definition of
Psychology:
*
In the 18th century,
psychology was understood as the „Science
of Mind‟.
*
William James (1892)
defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the words „mind „is
also quite ambiguous as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind. Modern psychologists defined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”.
*
Psychology as the “Science
of the Inner World”- James Sully (1884)
*
Psychology as the science
which studies the “internal experiences.- Wilhelm Wundt (1892)
*
Psychology as the “Science
of Behaviour”- William McDugall (1905)
* Psychology as
the science of behavior.- W.B. Pillsbury (1911) and
J.B. Watson(1912)
Psychology should, therefore, be defined as a “science of behavior and
experiences on human beings” -B.F. Skinner
According to Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human
behaviour and human relationship‟.
Relationship between
Education and Psychology:
(1) Psychology and aims
of education:
The aims of education can be fixed by taking the help of
psychology changes of the child. So the needs, interest, aptitude and attitude
are the indicators for planning any activity for education.
(2) Psychology and curriculum:
At the time of curriculum planning and construction, proper care should
be taken for the development rate of the child. So they are complementary in
the process of education.
(3)
Psychology and methods: A teacher has to give instructions through different methods,
which should be linked with psychological problems, needs and development of
the child.
(4) Psychology and evaluation:
The total process of evaluation and examination should be linked with
psychological principles. Questions should be prepared taking the normal
development of the children.
(5) Psychology and discipline:
The problems of discipline can be checked through proper psychological
techniques. It also helps to check different behavioral problems of the
children.
(6) Psychology and administration:
The process of administration should be based on the psychological
techniques. In administration, proper care should be given on the basis of
individual differences.
(7) Psychology and teacher:
Teacher
should be a master of psychology to deal with a complex educational situation.
Teaching is an art and so he should know different techniques of psychology in
order to solve different problems of the children.
(8) Psychology and
timetable, textbook preparation:
On the basis of psychological process
the curriculum workers, teachers, administrators prepare suitable timetable
according to the interest, time, suitability, local condition of the learners.
Similarly while preparing textbooks he must consider the value of psychological
needs, capacities and development of the learner.
Therefore, both psychology and
education have close link with each other.. Every teacher should learn the
child psychology before teaching.
CONTRIBUTION OF
VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Contributions of the following schools of psychology to education –
·
Behaviorism,
·
Gestalt,
·
Hormic
·
psychoanalysis,
Behaviourism
Behaviourism
arose as a result of the controversy between structuralism and functionalism.
Its chief proponent was J.B.Watson.
He disagreed with both the structuralism and functionalism. According to
Watson, it is useless to study elements of consciousness of effects on the
different parts of the body because it does not help in the understanding of
human nature.
For him, explanations of ‘why’ wee unnecessary; ‘how’ was the all important factor
we
can understand human nature by the study of one‟s physical activities, gestures and behaviour.
The subject-matter of psychology according to behaviourists is human and animal
activity, which can be observed and measured in an objective way. The purpose
of psychology is to discover ways and means of prediction and control of human
and animal behaviour. Consciousness, if at all it exists, is not the subject
for scientific study. The unit of behaviour should be reflexes or stimulus
response connections.
One‟s behaviour is composed of stimulus
response bond, which can be successfully analysed by objective and scientific
methods.
Therefore the chief method of psychology is observation of behaviour.
Watson was an extreme environmentalist. For him, environment is much more
important than heredity in the determination of behaviour.
Contribution
to Education
It
has greatly contributed to the psychology of learning and motivation.
It
has given a new methodology of teaching viz., the programmed learning.
It
lays great importance to environment and its influence on the growth and
development of the individual.
It
emphasised the role of the school, community and
the society in general and the teachers and parents in particular in
providing proper environment for the proper development of the children.
The
teachers should provide appropriate situations, wherein the children interact
with the other objects in the environment and acquire the various skills,
habits, attitudes and values.
Gestalt psychology
The
real birth of Gestalt psychology is associated with Wertheimer. Gestalt is
German word. It means form, or whole or pattern or configuration.
The Gestalt
psychologists contend that behaviour cannot be understood well by analysis.
Behaviour or a response is dependent on the whole and not on parts of the
stimulus. Most of the work of the Gestalt psychologists was in the field of
perception. According to Gestalt psychologists the study of
mental process and motor responses alone are not sufficient to understand behaviour. We have to include perception also, which depends
on the environment in which the individual is situated.
They developed the laws of pragnanz
or closure, proximity and similarity to explain perception.
§ Law of pragnanz or closure:
The human mind closes small gaps in our perception of object, so that minor
defects or irregularities in them are overlooked .
§ Law of proximity:Circles that are nearer one another
form a group in our visual perception. Though all the circles are of the same
size they appear to be in three groups on account of proximity as well as
distance.
§ Law of similarity: Objects of like shapes and colour
stand out in distinct group in the visual field. Here grouping is done, not on
the principle of nearness or distance, but on the similarity or difference in
shape.
Contribution to Education
ü The
whole situation will help the individual to get insight
ü Children
should not be made to learn alphabets, which constitute a word. They must be
taught words and even sentences first. This makes learning easy.
ü According
to Gestalt psychology, we have the tendency to go from the whole to the parts.
If the school learning also proceeds like this things become easy.
§ Gestalt
psychology has a great relevance to socialization in the field of education We
emphasis for example, group activity in the school, in which work is assigned
to the whole group. Each student, of course, works separately. The work of each
is, however
only
a part of the whole assignment. Similarly, whenever there is a discussion,
group discussion is the best.
§ The
whole situation will help the learner to learn quick and efficient.
§ It
gives emphasis to molar approach in understanding behaviour.
§ It
gives importance to group behaviour and social learning in education.
Hormic
McDougall was the
exponent of this school of thought. According to him, each activity has a
purpose behind it and leads towards some development.
Even
children try to grow. There is an aim before us even during childhood. Also he
stressed that all our behaviours are
purposeful and goal oriented. We are always inspired by innate feeling of
becoming great and perfect.
According to him, a response is
not always because of the occurrence of a stimulus. A response may be because
of a motive. It is not necessary that we feel the desire of eating only
when we look at sweets. Desire to eat depends upon hunger. This is the motive,
which produces the desire to eat. Different motives result in different
responses. It is the instincts that motivate human activity. Each instinct
associated with some emotions becomes the centre of all activities. Without
them no activity is possible.
Contribution to Education
§ Hormic
psychology is concerned not only with cognition; it lays great importance on conation also. According to it,
knowledge is only a by-product of the conation.
§ Thus
right education means educating him in terms of his goals of life. Thus Hormic
psychology is dynamic.
§ As
instincts are the propellers of our activities, education should sublimate
these instincts that are to use of these instincts for higher purpose, implying
social good.
§ McDougall
lays great emphasis on the role of school in the development of self- regarding
sentiment. It lays particular emphasis on the development of will power and
character, because the development of will power helps in the development of
self-regarding sentiment.
§ It
is the character in turn, which control the
will.
§ This
school of psychology provides the teacher with an insight, which helps him to adjust
child education
in the
light
of
the child‟s innate tendencies, wishes
and
sentiments.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis was founded during the late 1800's and early 1900's by
the Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud.
Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that behaviour is determined by
powerful inner forces, According to Freud and other psychoanalysts, from
early childhood people repress (force out of conscious awareness) any desires
or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to society.
The repressed feelings can cause
personality disturbances, self-destructive behaviour, or even physical
symptoms. Freud said that unconscious conflicts, usually related to sex
or aggression, were prime motivators of human behaviour.
He was the first
person who includes the unconscious mind in a formal psychological theory.
Freud believed that all behaviours -whether normal or abnormal -is influenced by psychological motives, often
unconscious one.Freud's "Theory of Unconscious Mind"
has a great value to understand the behaviour especially abnormal behaviour.
Concept
of Individual Differences
Individual variation
is a universal phenomenon. It is said that no two individuals are exactly
alike they differ from each other in some way or the other. Such a similarity
or difference between persons reveals individual differences in the early
1800s. The science of psychology studies people at three levels of focus
captured by the well known quote: “Every man is in certain respects
(a) like all other
men, (b) like some other men, (c) like no other man”. Individual differences
psychology focuses on this second level of study.
ü It is also sometimes
called Differential Psychology because researchers in this area study the ways
in which individual people differ in their behavior.
According to the dictionary of education
1-Individual differences stand for the variation or deviations
among individuals in regard to a single characteristic or number of characteristics.
2. It is stand for those differences which in their totality
distinguish one individual from another. So, we can say that individual
differences is the differences among humans that distinguish or separate them
from one another and makes one as a single unique individual.
The study of individual differences helps to understand not only
what makes humans similar to one another, but also what makes them different.
By considering the variations that can occur from one person to another, one
can best understand the full range of human behavior
Children
develop at different rates. This, in turn, creates variations among individuals
(i.e., individual differences). Again, these differences can be either
qualitative or quantitative. For children in any preschool classroom setting,
the differences in temperament, personality, intelligence, achievement, and
physical factors such as height and weight, are noteworthy and reflect a wide
range of normal variation. Some children grow rapidly and others grow more
slowly. There also are racial and gender developmental variations.
It is important to
understand that the concept of individual differences is the basis upon which
one child is compared to another. An understanding of individual differences
provides the foundation for recognizing normal variations as well as extreme
differences among children and, thus, for identifying those who may have
special needs. In general, understanding of the various developmental levels is
enhanced by familiarity with the concept of individual differences
Each student is a
unique individual, different in cognitive and affective development, social
maturity, ability, motivation, aspiration, learning styles, needs, interests
and potential. Apart from this, there are other factors underlying student
differences.
These include
innate differences in intelligence, differences in social and economic
background, variations in past learning experiences, and perhaps variations in
the level of congruence between the learner and the curriculum. In view of
these factors, catering for individual differences is intended neither to
narrow the gap between individuals nor to even out their abilities and
performance. It should aim for understanding why students are able or unable to
learn well and finding appropriate ways to help them learn better.
The aim of education is to enable each student to attain all-round
development according to his/her own attributes. To achieve this, students
should be provided with suitable assistance and guidance in accordance with
their abilities and learning needs, so that they can develop their potential to
the full.
Causes of Individual
Differences:
There are various causes which are responsible in bringing
individual differences.
Heredity:
Some heretical traits bring
a change from one individual to other. An individual’s height, size, shape and
color of hair, shape of face, nose, hands and legs so to say the entire
structure of the body is determined by his heretical qualities. Intellectual
differences are also to a great extent influenced by hereditary factor.
Environment:
The environmental influences are those which act upon the
organism, at the earlier stages development within mother‟s womb and later
external environment which operates from the time birth. The social
psychological environment in which, child is born provides social heritage. The
customs, socio-economic status, family environment interaction amongst the
family members and later peers and school environment cause variety conditions
to determine individual differences.
Environment brings individual differences in behaviour,
activities, attitude, and style of life characteristics. Personality etc.
Environment does not refer only physical surroundings but also it refers the
different types of people, society, their culture, customs, traditions, social
heritage, ideas and ideals.
Though environment in any home may outwardly look alike but it
has different impact on each individual based on interaction patterns,
personality and emotional responses of the individual. No two human beings even
belonging to the same family, having similar schooling, will have same
environment. The psychological environment is determined interpersonal
relationship amongst parent child and other members of the family.
Sex:
Due to sex variation one individual
differs from other. Men are strong in mental power. On the other hand women on
the average show small superiority over men in memory, language and aesthetic
sense. Women excel the men in shouldering social responsibilities and have a
better control over their emotions.
Age:
Age is another factor which is
responsible in bringing individual differences. Learning ability and adjustment
capacity naturally grow with age. When one grows in age can acquire better control
over our emotions and better social responsibilities. When a child grows then
this maturity and development goes side by side.
Education:
Education is one major
factor which brings individual differences. There is a wide gap in the
behaviors of educated and uneducated persons. All traits of human beings like
social, emotional and intellectual are controlled and modifies through proper
education.
This education brings
a change in our attitude, behaviour, appreciations, Personality. It is seen
that uneducated persons are guided by their instinct and emotions where as the
educated persons are guided by their reasoning power.
Self:
Individual differences are also due to
the particular constitution of self the individual himself. Though all siblings
are common heredity and environment, yet no two siblings in a same family are
alike . This difference is due to the different genes inherited by the
individual as well as differences environment.
Culture:
There has been a tendency in
psychology to ignore the experiences of people from different cultures. Two of
the studies in this section attempt to explore the experiences of Black People
within the Western world. The first study by Gould (1982) is a review of the
use of IQ testing. Gould demonstrates how psychological arguments have been
used to support racist arguments of White superiority. The study by Habra and
Grant (1970) investigates the identity of American Black children. Their study demonstrates
that there has been a change in consciousness of Black children from 20 years
previously.
Abnormality:
A further issue that is
often included in the section of individual differences is what psychologists
refer to as abnormality. However the concept of abnormality is also a highly
controversial issue. The judgment that somebody is abnormal is relative and is
based on factors such as culture, class, religion, sexuality and so on.
Classification of
Individual Difference
Broadly individual difference may be classified into two
categories such as inherited traits and acquired traits:
Alfred Binet’s (1857-1911) contributions to individual
psychology also are immense. His intelligence tests (1905) helped to find out
mental differences in degrees of brightness or dullness, in the levels of
development as represented by average capacities of children of various ages.
Various traits in which individuals may differ. The old classification of
traits is threefold – physical, mental and moral.
A more comprehensive
classification is given by Gates:
(a) Physical traits: Height, weight, built, appearance, facial
expression, health.
(b) Mental traits: Intelligence, as a measure of general
endowment, and more specific forms of mental activity as in memorizing,
perceiving, reasoning, imagining.
(c) Special capacities: Musical, artistic, mechanical, loco-motor and
social aptitudes.
(d) Acquired interest: Knowledge and technical skill.
(e) Temperament: Emotional tendencies and behaviour like nervous
stability.
(f) Volition: Characteristics relating to voluntary control
of all forms of actions, e.g., strength of will, tenacity, lethargy, etc.
(g) Character: Reaction tendencies towards situations
involving moral, ethical and religious codes and other socially approved
standards of conduct, e.g. honest, decent, humane, unselfish, etc.
Combination of traits
within the individual:
A human being is made of an exceedingly large number of different
traits, each present in some degree Individual differences in combinations of
traits – Actual achievement in any line depends on a combination of traits..
And there are an infinite number of total combinations and patterns.
Each is unique. It is
more important for an educator to know the individual’s characteristics
individually, i.e. the individual as a total personality, which is not always
possible to deduce from the group data, and graphs, representing group
characteristics and individual positions with reference to a group. It is;
therefore, always wise to draw a psychograph of an individual to understand
him.
Theories of Trait Combination
There are
theories to explain the way in which traits tend to be combined.
Ø
Theory of Compensation:
According
to the theory of compensation, strength in any one trait tends to be
compensated for by weakness in others and vice versa. The effect of this
tendency for strength to be balanced by weakness, and weakness by strength
would be to make individuals approach an average.
The result would be
that despite wide differences among pupils in each single trait, the average or
combined equipment for learning arithmetic would tend towards equality. Thus,
from the point of view of practical competence, pupils would not differ so
greatly.
Ø
Theory of Correlation:
The results of many careful
studies of the interrelations of traits have not been in harmony with this
view of compensation. “Instead, it has been found that there is a marked
positive correlation or coherence, in the amount of all mental traits possessed
by an individual.”
“The fact is,
correspondence among desirable traits rather than compensation, is the rule.”
These facts then tend to emphasise the significance of individual differences
in combination of traits rather than to minimise them. According to Thorndike
the possible causes of variations are the influences of sex, remote ancestry or
race, near ancestry or family, maturity and environment.
Areas of individual
differences in Learner
Here are few important
areas of individual differences:
ü
Difference in Attitude :Difference in attitude is psyche related to
some specific area. Few learners have positive attitude towards a specific
topic, subject, and profession than other.
ü Differences in
Interest: interest
means you observe some students like a particular subject, teacher, hobby or
profession than other.Interest may refer as a motivating force that impels us
to attend to a person, a thing, or an activity. So in educational field
differences in.
ü Difference in
Psychomotor Skills: Psychomotor Skill is related to some skill acquisition. Some
students differ in this area also. Some students easily learn operating a
machine and some may not. A wise teacher should diagnose students’ psychomotor
skills abilities and encourage them in proper desirable direction.
ü Difference in Values:Values be given
importance by every learner. Some learners value materialist life style other
moral or religious life style etc. So education must mould the mind of young
generation to have a balance values between materialism and spiritualism.
ü Difference Study
Habits: Some
students markedly differ from other students in study habits. Some students are
studious and study all the subjects with interest but other may not. Some study
in isolation and some in group.
ü
Difference in Self Concept: Difference in self concept is the totality of
attitudes, judgment, and values of an individual relating to his behavior,
abilities, and qualities. Some students have positive self concept than boost
their confidence level and perform better against those who have negative self.
Educational Implications of the Psychology of Individual
Difference
v The notion that
individuals differ in various abilities, capacities and personality
characteristics necessitates the adoption of individual tendencies in education.
It compels the teachers to realize following facts:
v Aims of education,
curriculum, method of teaching should be linked with individual differences
considering the different abilities and traits individual.
v All students can not
be benefited by one particular method of instruction and a uniform and rigid
curriculum The teacher has to adopt different types of methods of teaching
considering individual difference related to interest, need, etc.
v Some co-curricular
activities such as Drama, music, literary activities (Essay & Debate
Competition) should be assigned to children according to their interest.
v Every teacher should
try to have the desired knowledge of the abilities, capacities, interests,
attitudes, aptitudes and other personality traits of his pupils and in the
light of this knowledge should render individual guidance to children for
maximum utilization of their potentialities.
v Teacher uses certain
specific teaching aids which will attract the children towards teaching
considering their interest and need.
v Various methods such
as playing method, project method, Montessori method, story telling methods are
to be used considering/discovering how different children respond to a task or
a problem.
v It is wrong to expect
uniformity in gaining proficiency or success in a particular field from a group
of students. On account of their subnormal intelligence, previous background,
lack of proper interest, aptitude and attitude some students have to lag behind
in some or other area of achievement.
v Curriculum should be
designed as per the interest, abilities and needs of different students.
v In any group there are
individuals, who deviate from the norms of the group. Along with the average,
the presence of very superior and extremely dull is equally possible in his
class.
v The division of pupils
into classes should not be based only on the mental age or chronological age of
children but the physical, social and emotional maturity should be given due
consideration.
v In case of vocational
guidance the counsellor is to plan the guidance technique keeping in view the
needs and requirements of the students.
Provisions for
‘individual differences’ in Schools:
Realization
of the above facts or some more of their nature makes us think that we must
have some provision for the wide individual differences among our pupils in our
schools. Emphasizing this need Crow
and Crow (1973) write –
“Since we supposedly are teaching individuals, not groups of individuals,
it is the function of the school within its budgetary personnel and curricular
limitations to provide adequate schooling for every learner no matter how much
he differs from every other learner.”
How can
we accomplish this task is a pertinent question to be asked at this stage. In
fact, to provide adequate schooling or learning experience for every learner
according to his individuality is not a simple task. However, the following
suggestions can be helpful for any teacher –
1. Proper
knowledge of individual personalities: The first step in making
provisions for individual differences is not how abilities, capacities,
interests, aptitudes and other personality traits of individual pupils. For
this purpose, frequent assessment in the form of intelligence tests, cumulative
record card, interest inventories, attitude scales, aptitude tests and measures
for assessing personality traits shall be carried out.
2. Ability
grouping: In the light of results derived from various tests of
knowing individual differences in terms of individual potentialities in various
dimensions, the students in a class or area of activity can be divided into
homogeneous groups. Such divisions can prove beneficial in adjusting the method
of instruction to varying individual differences.
3. Adjusting
the curriculum: To meet the requirement of varying individual
differences among the pupils, the curriculum should be as flexible and
differentiated as possible. It should have the provision for a number of
diversified courses and curriculum experiences so that the pupils may get
opportunity to study and work in the areas of their own interests and
abilities. It should provide adjustment to suit the local requirements and
potentialities of students of different groups.
4. Adjusting
the methods of teaching: Considering the varying individual
differences, adjustment with regard to the adoption of methods of teaching is
very effective. Every teacher should be somewhat free to formulate his own plan
and strategy and adopt different instructional procedures which he finds most
suited to different pupils. He should follow different procedures or methods of
instruction to suit the requirements of varying ability groups of his pupils.
5. Adopting
social programs or methods for individualizing instruction: Schools may
also adopt some social programs or methods of teaching like the Dalton plan,
the Winnekta plan, project method or use programmed learning material for
enabling students to learn at their own individual pace.
6. Other
causes of individualizing instruction: For the purpose of
individualizing instruction a few practical measures can also prove beneficial
:-
•
The student strength of the class or section should be made as small as
possible.
•
The teacher should try to pay individual attention to the group under
instruction.
•
The teacher should keep in view the individual difference of his students while
engaging them in drill or practice work in the class-room or assigning
home-task.
•
In case where ability grouping is not possible and more specifically under the
prevalent system of class teaching, special coaching and guidance program for
both the dull and the gifted children are most helpful.
Thus, the
problem of individual differences can be tackled with multi dimensional tasks.
The teacher, school authorities, the parents and the government as well as
voluntary agencies – all should join hands to meet the individual requirements
of children who possess tremendous individual differences.
EXCEPTIONAL CHILD
DEFINITION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILD
An exceptional child is one who
deviates physically, intellectually, emotionally or socially, from the normal
or average child so markedly that he cannot receive maximum benefit from the
regular school programme and requires modification in the school practices and
programmes or requires special educational services or supplementary
instruction and services to enable him/her to develop to their maximum capacity.
Crow
& Crow(1973):
§ "The
term atypical or exceptional is applied to a trait or to a person possessing
the trait up to the extend of the trait is so great that because of it the
individual warrants or receives special attention from his fallows as his
behavior response & activities & there by affected".
Telford
& Sawrey(1977):
·
" The term exceptional children
refers to those children who deviates from the normal in physical, mental,
emotional or social characteristics to such a degree that they require special
social & educational services to develop their maximum capacity".
Cruick
Shank (1974):
§ "Also
holds similar view when he defines an exceptional child as a child who deviates
intellectually, physically, socially or emotionally so much from what is
considered to be normally growth & development that he cannot receive
maximum benefit from regular school program & requires a special class or
supplementary instruction & services".
Nature
Or Characteristics Of Exceptionality:
1.
Exceptionality refers to uniqueness. The
uniqueness of the exceptional child may be noticed in one or more of the
following dimensions - vision, hearing, movement, perceptual ,motor
,communication ,social ,emotional & intelligence.
2.
Exceptionality is related, impart, to
the amount & quality of previous experiences received in the home.
3.
The uniqueness of the exceptional child
may be in the negative direction or in the positive direction.
4.
Exceptionality is more quantitative than
qualitative.
5.
Exceptionality has direction as well as
intensity.
6.
Exceptionality is also characterized by
its extensity & breadth. Extensity is indicated by the degree to which the
primary deviation affects other aspects of one's personality & behaviour
Objectives
of Special Education
1. To provide better instructional
arrangement and procedures for evaluating and meeting the instructional needs
of exceptional children.
2. To help the gifted children in
making the best use of their potentialities and achieving the maximum so as to
be an asset to human social benefits.
3. To help the backward children in
achieving the maximum level of effectiveness and making adequate adjustment
both for individual and resource development.
4. To know the problems of
delinquent children and to develop them in solving their problems, for making
adequate achievements and adjustment.
5. To help the physically handicapped children
in making the best use of their potentialities and developing normal attitude
towards their deformity.
6. To help the mentally handicapped children
in providing suitable education, keeping in view their mental deficiency.
Importance
of Special Education
1. Insight to Parents and Teachers:
Special education provides insight to parents and teachers of the gifted and
the handicapped which help in the process of adjustment of these children in
the society.
2. Correct Solution: Special
education aims at developing confidence and competencies in handicapped
children to earn their livelihood independently. If they are trained properly,
they can become assets for the society.
3. Solution of Problems: Special
education will solve many problems of the institutions, which they face because
of their disabilities.
4. Active Participation: Special
educational arrangements will create in the handicapped desire to participate
in the activities with non-handicapped children. It will develop self-reliance
and self-sufficiency in them and socialize their behaviour.
5. Realistic Concept: Special
education develops a realistic concept in handicapped children through this
service the children will appraise their abilities, aptitudes, interests and
personality qualities. The children get the chance to understand themselves in
a better way. In order to compensate their disabilities, they excel in some
other fields and get recognition, which helps them as well as the society, in
terms of adjustment.
6. Suitable Placement: As disabled
children are handicapped in various ways, they may not fit in all jobs. Special
education helps the pupils in getting a good start in the vocation, which is
both, suitable to them in the light of their disability.
7. Individual Differences: Special education
is needed for exceptional children because they differ with regard to their
interests, motivation and aims of life, Special education should be provided
with modified curriculum, special instructional strategies and use of special
aids.
GIFTED
CHILDREN
The term giftedness and gifted children as its
historical evolution have a quite comprehensive and wide meaning instead of
merely confined to the measurement of IQ or achievement in academic subject.
Havighurst
(1958):
“The talented or
gifted child is one who shows consistentü remarkable
performance in any worthwhile line of endeavour.”
Sidney Marland (1972):
“Gifted and talented children are those identified byü
professionally qualified persons, who by virtue of outstanding abilities are
capable of high performance . There are children who required differentiated
educational programmes and services beyond those normally provided by the
regular programmes in order to realise their contribution to self and society.
. Children capable of high performance include those with demonstrated
achievement and /or potential ability in any of the area like i) General
intellectual ability ii) Specific academic aptitude iii) Creative or productive
thinking iv) leadership ability and visual and performance arts”
Characteristics
Of Gifted Children:
1.
Gifted Children learn rapidly and easily. Retain what they have heard or read
without much more drill & are capable of making use of learned things.
2.
Reason things out, think clearly, recognise relationship, comprehend meanings
& possess the ability of making sound judgement and generalization.
3.
Possess the ability to acquire & manipulate abstract symbol systems.
4. Demonstrate superiority in terms of
language development like i) having a large vocabulary& getting it used
easily & accurately.
5.
Possesses ability to solve problems by refraining the questions & creating
novel solutions.
6.
Possesses the ability to leadership more particularly in the areas of their
giftedness.
7.
Demonstrate the ability to perform difficult mental task, acedmic work or the
activities related their areas of giftedness one or two years in advance of
their agre & grade peers
8.
Demonstrate the potential of high energy levels by remaining alert , keenly
observant & responding quickly in the class & work situations.
Identification Of
Gifted Children
Our
society has a special interest in children who are gifted. As individuals they
have the same right to appropriate education as do all children. In addition,
of the leaders, scientists , engineers and doctors of the twentieth century
comes from the current group of gifted children. This necessitates early
identification of gifted children and provision of suitable education &
other services for them.
Gifted adolescents are usually
identified by subjective and identified methods , such as the following
A) Intelligent Scores
B) Creativity measures
C) Achievement measures
D) Measures of special Aptitude (such as in
Maths)
E) Nomination of peers & by
parents
F) Self nomination
It is
important to note that that no single method can identify all gifted &
talented children. A combination of subjective and objective method is
desirable for identifying gifted and talented.
Identification
Checklist For Parents:-
1. The early use of a
large & accurately employed vocabulary.
2. The use of entire
sentences & ability to tell or reproduce a story at an early date.
3. Interest in &
liking for books
4. Demonstration of
proficiency in drawing, music or other art form.
5. Interest in
exploration & discovery of cause & effect relationships
Identification
Checklist For Teachers:
1.
Learn rapidly & easily
2.
Uses a lot of common sense & practical knowledge
3.
Reasons things out , thinks clearly, recognizes relationships & comprehends
meanings
4.
Asks many questions.
5. Is alert, keenly observant & responds
quickly
2-MENTAL
RETARDATION – (MR)
Meaning and Definition:-
Mentally retarded, as the name suggests from the retardation of the
normal growth, development & functioning of their mental capacities.
Actually retardation as a term is frequently used in physics & engineering
as antonym of a for uniform increase in the velocity of a moving object &
retardation for a gradual decrease. Thus, the rate of a growth &
development of one’s intellectual powers gets diminished & arrested. In our
society we have people with different mental abilities-average, more than
average & less than average.
People with less than average mental ability are commonly called
mentally retarded. M.R Children are previously called idiots, feeble minded,
moron, imbecile etc. Now, mentally retarded are called mentally challenged or
intellectually challenged. Some of the definitions of mentally retardation
are:-
Page
(1976) “ Mental
deficiency is a condition of subnormal mental development present at birth or
early childhood & characterised mainly by limited intelligence & social
inadequacy”.
American
Association of Mental Retardation (AAMR) 1983:ü
“Mental
retardation refers to significantly sub average general intellectual
functioning. It is characterized by significantly sub average intellectual
functioning, existing concurrently & with related limitations in two or
more of the following applicable adaptive areas: communication, self care, home
living, social skills, community use, self direction, health & safety,
functional academics, leisure & work. Mental retardation manifests before
age 18”.
Characteristics
Of Mentally Retarded Children
ü The
circumferences of their head are comparatively less than the normal children
especially children diagnosed with microcephaly.
ü Many
of them have thick fingers or club finger & toes, short of stout in
structure & many usually have moon shaped eyes, short nose, open mouth
& fissures in the tongue.
ü Many
of them have unusual voice distinguished as hoarse voice or broken voice.
ü They
suffer from attention problems like lack of concentration & inattention
ü They
are quite poor in terms of memorization & forget things quickly
ü They
are very poor at abstraction. They can only think in terms of covered
objective, visualization and situations
ü ‘They
have motivational problems for talking initiative or proceeding with or task.
ü They
are deficient in terms of emotional & social maturity & have very poor
sensitivity to incidental cues.
ü They
have a very poor self concept & lack more in self confidence.
ü The
creative aspect is almost absent in such child.
CLASSIFICATION OF MR
1) On The Basis Of Severity:-
a) Mild: (55-70):A majority of approx. 85% of the retarded are
only mildly retarded as grown ups, these individuals attain intellectual levels
Comparable to those of the average 10 yea old boy.
b) Moderate (40-54): Approx. Of the 10 % of the total mentally
retarded have moderate mental retardation. In adult life these individuals
attain an intellectual level similar to that of the average 6 year old child.
Physically they appear clumsy, suffer from motor incardination.
c) Severe
(25-39): Nearly 3.5 % of all retarded individuals are mostly children
and adolescents suffer from severe MR. They never attain an intellectual level
greater than that of average four year old boy. The mortality rate due to high
susceptibility to disease is quite high among these individuals.
d) Profound
(below 25): The profoundly retarded constitutes 1.5% of the totally
mentally retarded population. They are characterized by the most severe
symptoms of the MR . The individuals belong to this category never attain the
intellectual level greater than that of the old boy.
2) On The Basis Of The IQ
a) MORONS ----- 51 to 70
b)
IMBECILES ---- 25 to 50
c)
IDIOTS ----- Below 25
3) On The Basis Of Education
ü Educable Mentally
Retarded (EMR) : (IQ 50 to 75) EMR are those who can be
taught the basic academic subjects.
ü Trainable Mentally
Retarded (TMR): (IQ 25 to 50) TMR are those children
who can be taught functional academics with emphasis on self help &
vocational skills.
ü Custodial
Mentally retarded (CMR) (IQ below 25) CMR are
those children who require constant & special care specially in a
residential institution. They are completely dependent on others.
Ø Causes Of MR:
Research
has indicated that mental retardation is highly inherited. It is organic in
nature. Both non-organic or environmental factors also cause mental retardation.
1)Organic
factors:
Pre natal Period:
· Cerebral mal development
· Chromosomal deviations
· Placental dysfunction
· Intra uterine infections
· Diabetes and malnutrition of mother
·
2) Prenatal:-
ü Complications
of prematurity
ü Birth
trauma
ü Suffocation
of the baby to born due to lack of oxygen at the time of birth.
·
3) Post natal:-
ü Cerbero
vascular accident
ü Neuro
toxins
ü Intra
cranial infections
ü Hormonal
imbalances
ü Nutritional
deficiencies·
Environmental Factors
It refers to those factors not in the chromosomes or genes of the
parents but in their surroundings that affect the babies brain. These factors
affect before birth , during birth and after birth.
1) Prenatal (During
pregnancy):
Infectins /illness of mother like
anaemia
Diabeties
High blood pressure
Malaria, Measels, Mumps
Poor diet
2)
During
Birth (Natal)
Premature o/ prolonged labour
Complicated or instrumental delivery
Shortage of oxygen to the brain
3)
Post
natal (After Birth)
High Fever
Viral infection like meningitis
Prolonged diarrhea
Jaundice /Typhoid/Tuberculosis
Accidents/head injuries
Lead/Mercury Poisoning
Inadequate environmental stimulation.
Education Of The MR.
From
time to time ,Govt has initiated various schemes of early identification,
assessment , & education of mildly and educable MR in general schools.
Most
of the children are already in the schools unidentified. Unless EMR children
are identified early & unless adequate steps are taken for their care,
training & education they will face failure & later dropout from the
school before completing the schooling.
They will not
only remain as burden for the society but target of universalisation of
elementary education will not be achieved.EMR, like any other normal children
have same fundamental rights to exist, training , education & work &
this calls for greater public understanding and awareness of the problems and
special needs of such children.
Provision for EMR:
EMR are
fit for making progress in normal schools. The special methods which are
usually followed are as
1. Individualisation
2. Learning by doing
3. Need for learning readiness.
4. Graded curriculum
5. Repetition
6. Short periods
7. Appropriate school work
Education Provision for
TMR:-
Less emphasis is given to the teaching of
academic subjects and more time is devoted to development of sensory motor,
self care and daily living skills. The curriculum should cover the following
measures
Self
care
Social
training
Sensory
trainings
Language
development
Craftwork
and music
Besides all these factors, emphasis put on the group of activities.
However, individual study of each child is necessary for initiating individual
programmes related to different aspects of personality growth. It is true that
this programme is quite difficult and time consuming. It is also expensive to
manage individual basic programme. In developing country like India, it is
quite unthinkable; however emphasis should be made on experiment
Backward Children
The presence of
backward children is not harmful for the gifted children but also for the
average children. The presence of backward children is a serious challenge for
the teacher to control the classroom atmosphere. When the teacher tries to pay
more attention to them and explains again to the same points for the benefits
of the backward children, he makes his teaching uninteresting for the other
children. In a normal classroom to satisfy all the needs of all the students is
a very typical and problematic situation for a teacher. Hence it is the duty of
the teacher to remove the inferiority feelings of the backward children.
Meaning of Backward
Children
Generally backward children
are those who unable to do the work of the class in which they are placed. He
does not respond satisfactorily to the ordinary school curriculum and to the
usual methods and procedures of the classroom teaching. They are weak in
studies and their academic achievements are not up to the mark.
Sometimes
generally we are saying that dull children are backward children but dull
children are those who have I.Q in between 70 to 85. Thus dullness may be one
of the causes of backwardness in intelligence but all backwardness is not the
outcomes of dullness. It is not essential that a backward child always lacks
intelligence.
Some children may be backward in their school, with normal or more than
normal intelligence because they can not make use of their intelligence and
capacity to the extent to which they ought to do. Backwardness may be due to
low intelligence or due to environmental factors.
Definitions of
Backward Children
“Backward child” is one whose Educational Quotient (E.Q) is less than
85”.
Educational Quotient (E.Q) is derived by the
formula given below:
Educational Quotient
(E.Q) = Educational Age × 100 / Chronological Age
§ Burt
“Backwardness in
general is applied to cases where their educational attainments are lower than
what they are capable
of”.
Burton Hart
“In the Indian
Situation, a backward child is one who being more than one year older than the
average age of his class.”
T.K.A. Menon
“Backward pupil is one
who, compared with other pupils of the same chronological age, shows marked
educational deficiency”.
Schonell
From the above mentioned definition
we may conclude that the backward children is one who is doing very less in one
or more subjects though his age is about the average of his class. It is an
intellectual and scholastic condition that affects the pupil’s entire
personality. It results from a complex of innate equipment and environmental
influences. It is a equivalent to psychological failure to the total child.
Types of Backwardness
Backwardness
may be classified into the following two categories:-
(i) General
backwardness
(ii) Specific
backwardness
§ General Backwardness: General Backwardness
means that the child shows poor performance or fails in each subjects of the curriculum
as compared to the average children of his class. This is also called all-round
backwardness.
§ Specific Backwardness: In case of
specific backwardness, the child is weak in one or more than one subjects but
he is not backward in all the subjects is called Specific backwardness. The
main cause of specific backwardness is due to lack of interest or aptitude in
that particular subject or faculty, teaching method or the teacher himself.
Characteristics of
Backward Children
Backward children have the following
characteristics-:
Their Educational
Quotient is below than 85.
They are slow in
academic, social, emotional and physical areas.
They are slow learners
and find it difficult to keep pace with the normal school work.
They are unable to
handle abstract and symbolic materials.
They are unable to
work independently.
They have short span
of interest and attention.
They need repetition
and drill work to remember.
Dullness or
intellectually deficiency is one of the causes of backwardness.
They may show
backwardness in one subject or more than one subject or in all the
subjects.
They are unable to
understand complicated games.
Usually they remain in
same class for a number of years.
In
fact the backward child should be labeled as dull or mentally retarded but he
is not necessarily backward because he is dull. A child can be really termed
backward only if his scholastic achievement falls below his natural ability.
Identification of
Backward Children
Generally the following
methods can be used to locate backwardness:
- Standardized
Tests: Administration
of Standardized verbal and non-verbal
Intelligence
tests are helpful to locate backward children.
- Observation
Method: A
teacher can easily identify the backward child from his class through his
daily observation.
- Educational
Quotient (E.Q): by
using the formula given by Burt whose E.Q fall below 85 is called backward
child.
- Achievement
Tests: Achievement
test in various subjects should be conducted to find whether the child is
general or specific backward.
- Situational
Tests: This
technique is also very helpful in careful detection of backwardness as
these tests are used to study the behaviour of the child.
- Social
Environment: These
include family history; Conditions of the home, neighbors, relation with
peer groups etc are very useful to identify the causes of backwardness in
child.
- Medical
Diagnosis: With
the help of medical diagnosis the physical defects leading backwardness in
the class can be easily identified.
- School
Progress Report: School
progress report and records are also very helpful in finding backward
children in the class.
Causes of Backwardness
Backwardness
is an individualistic problem and differs from person to person. A child called
backward when his educational achievement is below the level of his natural
abilities. The cause can be ranging from many physical, mental and personal
conditions. The cause of backwardness is not only related to student’s factor
but also it relates with the factor of teachers. Some of the causes of
backwardness are given below-:
- Physical
Causes: According
to Schonell, about 75%backwardness is due to the various physical defects
and diseases such as -:
Burt
in his studies found that 30% of children were poorly nourished, 37% suffered
from speech defects, stammered or had eyesight problems.
- Mental Causes: Mental or Intellectual
deficiency is also one of the very significant causes of backwardness.
Some children are born with some inherent defects in their brain system or
with some intellectual sub-normality. It is generally seen that students
whose intellectual powers like thinking, reasoning, imagination,
perception, observation, concentration are some reason not properly
developed generally drift towards low educational achievement. Such
children are seriously affected in their progress in school subjects. Burt
(1953) reported that 75% of backwardness found due to defective
intelligence or low I.Q.
- Social or Environmental
Causes: Uncongenial
environment is also the cause of backwardness. Burt found that 66%
backwardness is due to the social causes. The social and environmental
causes of backwardness are as given below-:
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
Personal
and Emotional causes: Backwardness is sometimes due to personal and emotional causes
like emotional instability, depression, anxiety, restlessness and other
emotional disturbances. According to Burt 1/3 cases of backwardness are due to
temperamental or emotional causes.
School
Environment: The school is too responsible for backwardness. The
chief causes related to school environment are as follows-:
Adjustment Problem of
backward Children
In our country India, Backward children is ignored practically but in
other countries special attention is being paid to them. In order to help
educationally a backward child, it is very necessary to find out the causes
have been discovered, we should plan an integrated plan of action with a view
to educating them. The backward child suffers from mental, social, emotional
problems. Besides a defective intelligence, the backward child can be reformed
in many ways. After diagnosing the probable cause or causes of backwardness
conscious efforts should be made to help the child to get rid of his
backwardness. For educating backward children “Remedial teaching” is needed
which can be done either with an individual or with a small group of children.
The following are some of the educational provisions for educating backward
children.
- Special
classes or School-: Provision should be made for special classes or school
to provide individual attention which is not possible in regular classes.
If the individual has some physical handicap of serious nature, he should
be sent to special schools.
- Regular
medical Check up and necessary treatment-: As we have said that the
backwardness may be due to some emotional trouble at home or school which
leads mental conflicts. They should be helped in their readjustment in the
home as well as at school. The social agencies and government should come
forward not only for educating the parents but also for giving proper
attention to remove or change the environment which is the cause of
backwardness.
- Provision
of Special Curriculum, Methods of Teaching and Special Teachers-: Efforts should be made to make
the curriculum suitable for backward children. Only those subjects should
be included in the curriculums which are useful for them. The whole
curriculum should be such that the backward children are able to adapt to
a profession in future. Not only suitable curriculum but also they need
special methods of teaching and trained teachers, they should be taught
with the help of adequate audio visual aids and the experimental method
should be followed for them. They should be taught by special trained
teachers so that they may be properly understood and their difficulties
removed.
- Special
coaching-:
Special coaching should be provided to the backward children as we know
that they are slow in academic achievement as comparison to the normal
children. They need more practice, drill, repetition and review due to their
intellectual deficiency.
- Individual
attention: Individual
attention should be paid to the backward students by which their
educational difficulties can be removed. It is possible if the class size
is small.
- Checking
Truancy and non-attendance: backwardness in some cases may be the result of
irregular attendance, truancy and long absence from schools. The cause for
such lapses should be determined and the required steps should be taken to
remove them.
- Rendering
Guidance Services: Now, we observed guidance service is very vital in the
entire field. It is considered as a panacea. Therefore, proper guidance
services should be organized and made available in every school for the
children of backwardness. State authorities should also pay due attention
to making the parents conscious of their children’s abilities, interests,
aptitudes so that their aspirations for the careers of their children may
be realistic.
- Various
Educational Trips: Various Educational trips of historical, geographical
and scientific interest should be organized. It helps in creating
interests and in understanding the different aspects of teaching.
- Physical
activities: Physical
activities such as games and sports may be encouraged in order to improve
the health of the students because it is recognized that the ill health
may be lead the cause of backwardness.
- Maintenance
of Proper Progress Record: The student’s achievement record should be properly
mentioned as it helps in knowing the rate of progress and the attainment
level of the students. For this purpose Progress Charts, Cumulative Record
Card (CRC), Anecdotal Record Card (ARC) should be mentioned in schools by
the teacher. This is also very helpful in the case of transfer of the
students from one school to another.
- Co-curricular
Activities: Co-curricular
activities in the form of dramatics, music, art, painting and other
hobbies should not be ignored because it helps in making teaching
effective and interesting.
- Controlling
negative Environmental factors: The social surroundings plays a very vital role
for shaping the behaviour of an individual. It may affect negatively one’s
interests, attitudes and vision of life. Therefore, proper care should be
taken for controlling such type of negative environment.
- Taking
the help of experienced Educational Psychologists: For planning of the
education of backward children, the service of an experienced educational
psychologists also prove more valuable. He may give valuable guidance to
the teachers as well as parents for taking remedial steps for removing the
causes of backwardness in their problem.
Unit-2
INTRODUCTION
The human being is never static. From the moment of
conception to the time of death, the person is undergoing changes. Development
may be defined as a progressive series of orderly, coherent changes. The
various developments that take place during the life time of an individual are
physical, motor, social, emotional, intellectual, aesthetic and moral.
Developmental Psychology is the branch of psychology that studies intra
individual and inter individual changes.
The
Developmental Process
The aim of
education is to bring desirable changes in the learner. These changes are
taking place due to growth and development. Therefore, to bring desirable
changes in the child, knowledge of growth and development especially how the
pre-natal and postnatal development takes place, how child’s behaviour due to
interaction with the surrounding etc is to be understood by prospective
teachers.
Change is the law of nature. Animate or inanimate object are all subject
to change. As far as human beings are concerned life starts with the conception
in the mother’s womb as a result of the process of fertilization of the ovum of
the mother by the sperm cell of the father. Then mother’s womb becomes the site
and means for the growth and development of new life and after nine month ,
baby come in to the world .i.e. the process by which a germinating seed or
conceived organism is turned in to mature plant or full-fledged being called ‘growth
and development’.
Growth refers
to increase in the size of body parts or of the organism as a whole. It can
be measured or quantified. E.g. growth in height, weight, size etc.
In
other words, growth refers to cell multiplication or quantitative changes in
size, weight, and number.
ü Development
is a process by which an individual grows and changes throughout the life
cycle. Or it refers to qualitative changes that begin at conception and
continue through life span. e.g. ability to sit, stand, walk, learning to talk
etc.
In the words of Elizabeth Hurlock, ‘ the
term development means progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly predictable
pattern as a result of maturation and experience’.
According to Crow & Crow, ‘growth
refers to structural and physiological change and development is concerned with
growth as well as those changes in which result from environmental situations’.
Therefore, growth is quantitative and development is qualitative.
|
Sr.No. |
Development |
Growth |
|
1 |
A progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and learning. |
Structural and physiological changes |
|
2 |
functional change |
structural change |
|
3 |
overall changes |
Particular |
|
4 |
Qualitative |
Quantitative |
|
5 |
direct measurement difficult |
Possible |
|
6 |
progressive changes |
changes both progressive and retrogressive |
|
7 |
continuous process
possible without growth E.g. Intellectual functions in abstract |
thinking may or may not bring development E.g. increase in brain weight |
PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Growth
and Development do not take place in a haphazard manner. They tend to follow
certain principles underlie certain process of development, which can be
observed in all human being. Crow and Crow says; ‘Growth refers to structural
and physiological change, while development refers to growth as well as those
changes in behaviour, which result from environmental stimulation’. Growth
refers to structural and physiological changes.
It generally refers to an increase in size,
height and weight. While development refers to changes in the organism as a
whole. Growth can be measured. Development can be observed. Growth stops at
maturity. But development continuous throughout the life.
Growth may or may not bring development. Development is also possible
without growth. Growth is quantitative. But development is both quantitative
and qualitative. Growth takes place through twin process of differentiation and
integration. Whereas development is a wider process, but growth is only part of
it.
v Development
is continuous ·
v Development
follows an orderly pattern
o
Development proceeds from general to
specific
o
Development leads to integration
o
Principle of cephalocaudal and proximo
distal tendencies
o
Development proceeds from egocentricism
to allocentricism
o
Development proceeds from heteronomy
(dependence) to autonomy
o
Development is an individualized process
o
Development is predictable
o
Development is the product of the
interaction between maturation and learning
o
Principle of interrelation
o
Development is cumulative
o
Development is the product of the
interaction between heredity and environment
o
Development is complex · Development is
spiral and not linear
EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The human being is never static. From the
moment of conception to the time of death, the person is undergoing changes.
Development may be defined as a progressive series of orderly, coherent
changes. The various developments that take place during the life time of an
individual are physical, motor, social, emotional, intellectual, aesthetic and
moral.
ü Development is a continuous process,
so the teacher should take continuous efforts to achieve perfection in the
various aspects of development of the child.
ü Development is individualized
process. So, each child should be helped along the development process within
the sphere of his individual ability.
ü Development follows an orderly
sequence. This knowledge helps the teacher to plan learning process and arrange
suitable learning experiences so as to achieve maximum gains in terms of growth
and development.
ü Different aspects of development are
interrelated and interdependent. The knowledge cautions the teacher not to
encourage the development of a particular aspect at the cost of another.
ü The principle of interaction between
heredity and environment reminds the teacher to arrange for the best
environmental settings and experiences for children so that they can develop
maximum within the limits of their genetic makeup.
ü The goal of developmental changes is
that, to enable the people to adapt to the environment in which they live.
Maturation is the biological unfolding of the characteristics according to a
plan contained in the genes, or the hereditary material passed from parents to
child. Learning is the process through which experience brings about relatively
permanent changes in thoughts, feelings or behaviour.
INFANCY
(0-2 Years)
An infant (from the Latin word infants, meaning "unable to speak" or "speechless") is the very young offspring of a human or animal. When applied to humans, the term is usually considered synonymous with baby or brain (in Scottish Engli.
sh), but the latter is commonly applied to the young of any animal. When a human child learns to walk, the term toddler may be used instead.
The term infant is typically applied to young children between the ages of 1 month and 12 months; however, definitions may vary between birth and 1 year of age, or even between birth and 2 years of age.
A newborn is an infant who is only
hours, days, or up to a few weeks old. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate
(from Latin, neonatus, newborn) refers to an infant in the first 28 days after
birth; the term applies to premature infants, post mature infants, and full
term infants. Before birth, the term foetus is used
Characteristics of Infancy
o Very fast changing phase
o rate of growth is very fast, but not as much as in Prenatal stage
o a nutrition-dependent phase
o high velocity of growth declines after year one · nervous system develops faster
o birth weight and length increases (usually doubles weight by 9 months)
o uncoordinated movements · responds to human touch & voice
o poor vision (focusing range = 8 to 12 inches)
o
Reflexes: sucking, grasping, stepping, rooting,
startle
ü How does a child grow
and develop between the ages of 2 and 5
The ages between 2
and 5 are often called the preschool years. During these years, children change
from clumsy toddlers into lively explorers of their world.
A child develops in these main
areas:
o
Physical
development. In these years, a child becomes
stronger and starts to look longer and leaner. · Cognitive development. A child this age makes great strides
in being able to think and reason. In these years, children learn their
letters, counting, and colures.
v Emotional and social
development. Between the ages of 2 and 5, children
gradually learn how to manage their feelings. By age 5, friends become
important.
v Language.
By age 2, most children can say at least 50 words. By age 5, a child may know
thousands of words and be able to carry on conversations and tell stories.
v Sensory and motor
development. By age 2, most children can walk up stairs
one at a time, kick a ball, and draw simple strokes with a pencil. By age 5,
most can dress and undress themselves and write some lowercase and capital
letters.
|
Table 2.2. Summary of
developmental milestones from zero to two years |
||
|
|
Cognitive and linguistic milestones: Social stimulation and interaction |
Social-emotional and behavioural
milestones: Attachment relationship |
|
Birth
to six months |
·
Better differentiation of external stimuli (sounds, colours, etc.) ·
Recognition of facial expression ·
Preference for familiar people, stimuli and face- to face interactions. ·
Improvement of memory and attention skills (infants
can remember and attend to certain people, physical locations or objects) ·
Use of crying to express basic needs (hunger, thirst, comfort, etc.) ·
Emergence of language precursors: Cooing (2 months) and babbling (4
months) ·
Joint attention: Caregiver and baby take turns
exchanging facial expressions and noises. |
·
Early behavioural and emotional self-regulation based on establishment of regular
activities and routines (e.g., eating, sleeping, etc.) ·
Sleep cycles become more predictable by the age of eight weeks ·
Gaze aversion: Normal reaction to overstimulation
and arousal ·
Social smile: As a response to familiar human faces (6 weeks) and as
initiated by the baby (3 or 4 months). ·
Multiple displays of emotions by age six months (e.g., frustration,
anger, sadness, etc.) ·
Individual and contextual differences in temperament |
|
Seven months to one year |
·
Growing perceptual and sensory capabilities. ·
Improvement of memory and attention skills:
Dependent on the familiarity of the situation,
person, or infant’s motivation ·
Object permanence
(eight months): Objects and people still exist although not seen or heard ·
Emergent language skills: Babbling when
interacting with the caregiver, some
will speak their first word
at |
·
Development of attachment relationships: Infant’s bond with the
primary caregiver ·
Separation anxiety: Displays anxiety when the caregiver leaves ·
Social referencing: − How to react to ambiguous or novel situations − Facilitates acquisition of culture-bound
social nuances − Differentiation between self and others. |
|
|
12 months
or in the next stage ·
Can point to an object (e.g., a toy) around one year ·
Will learn and respond to own name |
|
|
13 months to 18 months |
·
Expansion of their repertoire of earlier cognitive skills: −
Object permanence: Will look for the hidden item in more than one location −
Memory and retrieval: Increasing delays between the observed
behaviour and its imitation in other contexts − After the first word (eight-18 months):
Vocabulary grows to about 200 words |
·
Self-awareness: Recognition of oneself ·
First demonstrations of empathy: Capacity to reflect and feel the
emotions demonstrated by another person (e.g., when infants see displays of
negative emotionality in their caregiver, they may show their own personal distress or attempt to
comfort the caregiver). |
|
19 months to two years |
·
Cognitive advances in memory, problem solving, and attention: −
Development and execution of action plans (e.g., building a structure) −
Pretend or make- believe play (20 months) and daily life play themes |
·
Use of language and other behaviours to regulate emotional experience ·
Growing awareness of others Emergence of more complex emotions (e.g.,
embarrassment, guilt, shame, etc.) ·
Lower intensity of separation anxiety ·
First signs of self-control: Able to delay engagement in an enjoyable task ·
Play: Imitation of others, use of language and play choices based on
gender stereotypes. |
|
|
·
Advanced linguistic
skills: −
Combining two or more words − Replacement of parts of a
word with vowels or consonants that are easier to say − Vocabulary growth. |
|
IK L @ G M A I L . C O
CHILDHOOD (3-12 Years)
Early Childhood (2 to 7
Years)
Characteristics of
Early Childhood
v rate
of growth decreases or slows down; growth is slowest by the 3rd year, but
stable and consistently increasing
v learning
ability which was launched in the 1st year becomes faster as the child is
exposed to new environment
v all
the psychomotor skills are enhancing; muscle coordination allows the child to
run, climb, move freely
v speech
is learned; child recognizes letters and some
words
v teeth erupt
v short
attention span
Educational
implications of development at Childhood
v Parents
should take care of the education of the child. They should lay foundations for
all improvement in different dimension of developments.
v A
sound mind has to built in this early stages. Physical activities should be an
integral part of education. Proper nourishing food should be given. Protection
from epidemic diseases must be carefully attended.
v Mother-tongue
should be taken as the medium of instruction since mother- tongue has an
emotional attachment by being early understood.
v There
should be associated with good environments that may keep themselves away from
various deeds.
v The
instincts of curiosity should be developed. Their questions must be properly
answered. They should broaden the mental horizon of the child.
v Group
playing, peer group relations should be encouraged. Education should find
provision for such developments of social qualities.
v Some
interesting and entertaining activities such as music, fine arts etc should be
the essential part of education at this stage.
v Play
way method in education is the essential psychological approach at this stage
of education. Scientific and attractive toys, models etc should be freely
displayed to their access for releasing then innate and dormant qualities.
Factors Affecting
Social Development
ü Home
ü Parental
attitude and social development
ü Child
rearing practices
ü Relation
with siblings
ü Socio
Economic Status (SES)
ü Influence
of Peer Group
|
:
Human Development: From Infancy to Adolescence an Overview |
|
|
INFANCY |
·
Rapid growth. From reflex
movement to movement with purpose. ·
From rolling over to sitting to
crawling to first steps. ·
From using senses for learning to participating in
rolling/throwing a ball. ·
From coos and babbles to
understanding very simple commands. ·
From indiscriminate smiling to drawing away from strangers. ·
Attachment bond with caretaker is developed. |
|
TODDLER: |
·
From
first steps to running, jumping and kicking. Bladder control achieved. ·
From
imitating the stacking of cubes to recognizing colours. ·
Begins
to feed self with spoon. ·
From
using two- or four-word sentences to enjoying simple songs. ·
From
imitation of adult behaviour to playing alone (fantasy play). ·
From
almost total dependence to increasingly greater independence. Has temper tantrums. |
|
|
EARLY
CHILDHOOD: |
·
From basic toilet training to
increased body awareness and exploration. More awareness of sexual
differences. ·
From knowing colours to
identifying pennies, nickels and dimes. Begins to read and write. ·
From four-word sentences to use
of full sentences. Mastery over use of past tense words is achieved. ·
Begins to model and identify with
adults of the same sex. ·
From very bossy and belligerent
to wanting to please adults. |
|
|
LATENCY: |
·
From putting together simple
puzzles to good body control. Girls begin to develop breasts and pubic hair. ·
From taking care of personal
needs to increasing responsibility at home and in school. Increased ability
to use logic. ·
From first use of full sentences
to well-developed language and communication
skills. ·
From self-centred behaviour and
unstable relationships to highly selective (best friend) relationships.
Engaging in and enjoying competitive games. ·
From being sensitive to feelings or
others toward self, to
becoming more independent dependable and trustworthy. Likes privacy. |
|
|
ADOLESCENCE: |
·
Sudden and rapid physical and
sexual development. ·
Abstract thinking appears. May
start planning for the future. ·
Needs less family companionship
and interaction. ·
Usually has a gang of friends
with less intense relationships. ·
Conflicting feelings about dependence/independence. ·
Worried about grades, appearance
and popularity. ·
May appear moody, angry, lonely,
impulsive, self- centred, confused and stubborn. ·
May develop strong interest in
single, romantic relationships. |
|
INTELLECTUAL (MENTAL) DEVELOPMENT
The mental development include the development of intellectual and mental capabilities like sensation, perception, concept formation, attention and interest, development of imagination, memory and problem solving ability and other mental abilities.
The teacher’s duty is to assist the child in the development of his abilities. Development of these abilities is the aim of our education. Therefore, mental development means development of mental and intellectual capabilities, which help an individual to adjust his behaviour to the ever-changing environmental conditions or to complete a task that needs complex cognitive capabilities. Intellectual abilities are interrelated, so, the overall development of this abilities can only lead to the development of an individual.
Factors affecting mental development
v Hereditary
or natural factors
v Environmental
or nurtural factors
v Influence
of family
v Neighbourhood
influence
v Influence
of school
v Teacher’s behaviour
v Method
of teaching
v Curriculum:
v Extra-curricular
activities
Areas of Mental
Development
·
Sensation:
Sensation
is the elementary impression gathered through sense organ. The child’s response
to a stimulus is influenced not only by the sensorystimulus
but also by
the effect of past
experience.
·
The
sensory stimulus separated from the effect of past experience is called
sensation.
·
Perception:
If
the sensory stimuli processed and interpreted by the brain such process is
called perception. Perception can never take place in the absence of basic
sensation. The sequence of events leading to perception. i.e., Sensation +
Meaning = Perception.
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Physical
development refers to the physical changes in the size, structure and
proportion of the parts of the body that take place at the moment of
conception. Directly physical development determines what children can do at a
particular age. Indirectly, it influences their attitude toward self and
others.
As the child grows
physically, the range of his experiences increases. The increase in his
experience contributes to the developments in cognitive, emotional, social and
moral areas. Studies show that growth comes in cycles. The term ‘cycles’ means
that physical growth does not occur at regular rate rather in periods or
phases, sometimes rapidly and sometimes slowly.
·
Arms
- grow
much longer between babyhood and age 6. Arms are thin and straight because the
muscles grow at a very slow rate. Legs grow at a slower rate than the arms.
·
Teeth
–
most of the baby teeth have cut through the germs shortly after baby hood ends.
The baby teeth will be fall between 5 and 7. The process of loosing baby teeth
and replacing them with permanent teeth goes on until the child is 12 or 13 years.
·
Bones
-
bone development consists of growth in bore size, change in the number of
bones, and change in their composition. Bone development is most rapid during
the first years of life, then relatively slow up to the time of puberty and one
again more rapid.
·
Muscles
and Fat - Fatty tissues develop faster than muscle tissue
during early childhood. Children who eat too much carbohydrates and too little
protein will develop too many fat cells.
·
Nervous
System - At birth brain weight is one-eighth of total
weight, at 10 years, one-eighteenth, at 15 years, one-thirtieth, and a maturity
one fortieth.
Sex Differences
·
At birth girls tend to be shorten than boys.
·
Boys are generally taller than girls at
all ages except 10, 11 and 12 years as girls tend to reach puberty earlier.
·
Boys tend to be heavier than girl right
through the first nine years. Between ten to fourteen years the girls have a
tending to shoot ahead.
Factors Affecting Physical
Development :
Heredity
and environment are the two main factors that affect physical development. The
environment factors include pre- natal and birth conditions, socio-economic
status, nutrition, physical exercises etc.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Motor development
means the development of control over bodily movements through the co-ordinated
activity of the nerve centres, the nerves and the muscles. Motor development is
of greater significance for the total development of the child.
·
Good
Health which is vital to
the child’s development and happiness is partly dependent on exercise.
·
Emotional
maturity: Once the child develops his motor skills
adequately he starts participating in team games and sports and learn to
control his emotions, show sportsmanship etc.
·
Independence:
Motor development gives the child a sense of
independence and with it a feeling of security since he can learn to tackle
things on his own.
·
Self-Entertainment:
Motor control enables children to engage in activities which give them
enjoyment even in the absence of playmates.
·
Socialization:
Good motor development contributes to the child’s acceptance and provides
opportunities to learn social skills.
·
Self-Concept:
Motor control leads to feelings of physical security, which are soon translated
in to psychological security.
Gross and Finer Motor Skills: Motor
skills can be roughly divided into two main types.
·
The gross muscular skills like jumping,
hopping, running, lifting and climbing.
·
The finer muscular skills like drawing,
painting and writing.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
‘Emotional
development’ refers to the emergence of emotions like anger, joy, delight,
happiness, fear, anxiety and sorrow and the socially acceptable ways of
expressing them. As the child grows up and becomes aware of acceptable ways of
behaviour, a variety of emotions also emerge.
Common Emotions
·
Affection:
Anything
that gives the young child pleasure a person, a pet or a toy- becomes the
object of the child’s affection.
·
Anger:
Anger
has a very bad influence on the personality of the individual and hence is
called a negative emotion.
·
Curiosity:
Things
that are new and different may make children want to explore them. later, when
children can ask questions, they add facts given the answers to what they
learned from exploring.
·
Envy:
The usual causes of envy in young children are the things other children own or
can do.
·
Fear:
Is a form of self protecting flight from any dangerous situations. The child is
frightened by loud noises, animals, strange persons, high places, darkness,
loneliness, pain and falling down.
·
Grief:
The loss of anything important to children a family member, a pet or a loved
toy-makes them cry and they refuse to do what they usually do.
·
Jealousy:
Jealousy
is an attitude of resentment directed towards people. Whenever a parent or
other adult shows more interest in, and gives more time and attention to
another child, young children may resent it.
·
Joy:
Anything
that makes a young child feel satisfied and important, such as doing something
well and winning praise for it, gives rise to an overall feeling of happiness
known as joy.
SOCIAL
AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Social development is the ability
to adjust the individual to his present social circumstances and to behave in
accordance with the wishes and desires of other people i.e., Social development
is a process of development by which a child acquires the necessary attitudes,
values and skills that makes him an acceptable member of the group, which he
belongs.
According to Crow and Crow social development
as the acquisition of the ability to conform to group standard.
In the words of Elizabeth Hurlock, Social
development means the attaining of maturity in social setting. In defining
social development, Sorenson has written, by social growth and development we
mean the increasing ability to get along well with one and others.
In short socialization is the process of the
development of such qualities, which bring desirable changes in social
behaviour of the child. It is the process whereby the biological individual is
converted into a human person. An individual, mature from the social stand point, is one who co-operate with
all those with whom he come into contact, and contradict them only when such a
course of action becomes inevitable.
Factors influencing Social
Development
Personal factors
§
Physical
factor: Healthy child have the strength to make him
adjusted in the challenging social situations. He is able to mingle with people
and maintain proper relationship.
§
Mental
factor: Mental factor or intelligence is very essential
for adjustment and sociability to the individual
§
Emotional
factor: Those person express his emotion in a proper way
at a proper time, he have posses the health social personality.
Environmental factors
·
Family
·
School
·
Peer group
UNIT-3
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Concept of Learning and learning theory
Introduction
:-
Man is a learning
creature, and learning process begins not only since his birth but also in the
womb of his mother. In Mahabharata brave Abhimanyu obtained the knowledge, of
breaking the ring shaped formation of troops, in the womb of his mother. This
is the direct instance of learning. Learning is a life long process. Man learns
throughout his whole life. In the beginning, infant is helpless and dependent
on others, but slowly he tries to adjust himself according to the atmosphere. In
this adjustment, he tries to take the advantages by the experiences of the
process, which is called learning by the Psychologists. Learning is an
important subject in the study of Educational Psychology. First the word ‘Know’
was used for learning.
Nature
of Learning :-
Learning is an
extensive word. Learning depends on the inborn responses. Being inspired by the
inborn instinct, a man does whatever activities there are for the adjustment of
his situation.
According to the Psychologists- Learning is a mental process. A
mental process is expressed by the behavior. A man is changed and refined on
the basis of the experiences in his behavior. Two factors are included in
the process of learning—maturity and ability to take the advantage from the
earlier experiences.
For example, if a
burning stove is kept in front of a baby, he touches it because of his
curiosity, as soon as he touches it, his hand burns; he draws away his hand
rapidly. Then he does not go by the side of it any time, because he has learnt
by his experience that fire will burn him. Thus, Learning is the progressive
change in the behavior by the earlier experiences.
On the basis of this, we can say that learning is an education. Learning
and Education, the both indicate the same process. Both activities go on
forever and everywhere in life. Child, growing towards the maturity, taking the
advantage of his experiences, does whatever proper responses, that is called
learning. As Blair Jones and Simpson have said- ‘’any change of behavior which is a result of experience and which causes
people to face later situation differently may be called learning.’’ It
is necessary to study the given defi nitions by the Psychologists to clear the
meaning and nature of learning
Definition of Learning:-
(1) According to
Morgan and Gilliland—‘’Learning is the behavior of the organism as a result of
experience which is retained for at least a certain period of time.’’
(2) Gates and Others—‘’Learning is the
modification of behavior through experience and training.’’
(3) Woodworth—“the process of acquiring
new knowledge and new responses is the process of learning.’’
(4) Skinner—“Learning
is process of progressive behavior adaption.’’
(5) Crown
bank—“Learning is shown by a change in the behavior as a result of
experience.’’
(6) Crow & Crow—“Learning is the
acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.’’
(7)
Thorndike—‘’Learning is selecting the appropriate responses and connecting it
with the stimulus.’’
(8)
Kuppuswami—‘’Learning is a process by which an organism, as a result of its
interaction in a situation, acquires a new mode of behavior, which tends to
persist and affect the general behavior pattern of the organism, to some
degree.’’
In fact the collection of the above definitions have been done on the
basis of this, which could make clear the opinion of learning from the multi
angle point of view. In spite of being completely independent, the above
definitions are complementary to each other. The following things of learning
factor are explained with the combination of many definitions—
(1) There is change in the behavior by the process
of learning as having been burnt in the fire, an infant Notes does not go close
to fire.
(2) Whatever changes happen in the behavior, keep on
till sometime, as he does not forget it soon that there is a lot of pain, after
having a burn from the fire.
(3) The change in the behavior is based on the
earlier experiences, if a child has burn from fire, then he works in such a
fashion while working with fire that he does not get a burn again.
(4) The change that happens in the behavior could be
externally visible, invisible or partially visible.
(5) There are permanent changes in the behavior or
doing work in the learning related way. The changes happening in the behavior
in the form of doing work, cannot include those changes, which are originated
from the main instincts, maturity, addiction, and tiredness.
(6) Learning is the refi nement of behavior. Once
the changes take place in the behavior, that changed behavior can be improved
in a new situation.
(7) The learner obtains growth again and again in
cognative, affective and conative fields by the learning, which helps him with
the progressive change in his behavior.
Process
of Learning :-
The process of learning
has been cleared with the help of above definitions. The process of learning
moves on throughout the life consciously or unconsciously. Developing by
individual learning process. Its basis is maturity. Inspiration is
necessary in the process of learning.
According to Guthrie—“Ability to learn is to respond differently to
situation because of the past experiences to a situation.”
According to the Peel—‘’Learning is a change, in a person which, happens
according to the changes in his environment.’’
Peel has explained the process of learning in brief—
(1) By learning, permanent and temporary, both types
of changes come in a person.
(2) Learning is different from the easy, natural
activities of person as blinking the eye and to draw the hand etc.
(3) Learning is possible by the social and
biological adjustments or conscious purposes.
(4) Learning can originate both types of behaviors
as social, unsocial in a person.
(5) Education
can be faultless and faulty.
According to
Woodworth—‘’Learning consists in doing something new provide the new activity
is rein forced and reappears in latter activities.’’
Features
of Learning Process:-
In the definitions of learning, Psychologists have given a specific type
of nature to the process of learning. If the specific process of learning is
analyzed, the following characteristics of learning process are highlighted:
(1)
Learning is universal—Learning is such a process, which happens in the
living beings in all the times and all the places. Wherever there is a being,
place and time, the process of learning will take place. Human being keeps on
engaging in doing something every time.
(2) Learning
is change—The change that happens in the behavior of child is learning.
Learning is that process, by which the change will appear in the child. By the
learning, the sequence of changes and rechanges move on, by which child becomes
the outcome of the changes.
(3) Learning is development—The
development of child is possible by the process of learning. The contribution
of learning in the whole development of child is so much important, that
learning becomes the synonym of development. The Psychologists have considered
that the personality of child is developed in form of progressive changes and
refinement, which is possible by the process of learning. Learning is seen in
the form of development.
(4) Learning
is adjustment—Child establishes adjustment with the society and the
environment by the learning process. The process of adjustment is so close to
the process of learning that we understand adjustment as learning. In fact
Human being has to adjust with the environment to survive. So he has to do the
process of learning for his survival. Gates and others have accepted learning
as an adjustment.
(5)
Learning is Purposesive—It is necessary to have some purpose for
learning. The goal of learning could be attained by purpose only. Purposiveness
decides the aim of learning, and provides the direction to the responses.
(6)
Learning is continuous—Learning is neither limited to any age, or any
period. Rather, it continues throughout the life.
(7) Learning is creative—It is the
tendency of human nature, to do some creative work. Thus, doing such work is
learning, which he manifests in the form of thoughts and actions. Creativity encourages
man, by initiative towards learning.
(8)
Learning is response to total situation—A person establishes adjustment
with different kinds of situations after examining them on the basis of
completeness. He continues to learn to do the right responses for the
adjustment to the situation. So learning is a delivery of right responses to
total situation of a person.
(9) Learning is a relationship between
stimuli and responses—To establish the right and desirable responses
with any stimuli is learning. On the basis of this fact, Psychologists have
delivered the word ‘relational’ in the study of learning.
(10) Learning
is related with cognitive, affective and conative domains—whatever a
man learns, its fi eld is cognitive, affective and co-native. And learning is
related with cognitive, affective and co-native fi elds, he collects knowledge,
feelings and collects skill to do activities.
(11)
Learning is Transferable—A person can use the same skills and solutions
of the problem in the other similar problems, which he has learnt in any
situation. Means, learning transfers. Thus, learning is transferable.
(12)
Learning is a process—From the psychological point of view learning is
a process, which moves on in a living environment. This process is seen, in the
fulfillment of the need, under the condition of stimuli- responses, in
obtaining the goal, in obtaining the success in the adjustment, and in the
stabilization of behavior and practical change.
Factors
of Influencing Learning:-
After studying
the process of learning, it is also necessary to study the influencing factors
of learning in the education, because man’s nature is changeable, and its study
is complicated. And personality differences are found in the learning.
Psychologists have studied such factors on the basis of their experiments,
which generally affect the learning of all persons. There can be a progress in
the process of learning, after getting proper knowledge of factors influencing
learning. In these factors, inspiration, interest, meditation, intellect,
health, the nature of subject and the different methods of learning are
important. These factors can be studied in the both aspects as helpful and as
an obstacle in the process of learning. Opposition of any factor is an obstacle
in the process of learning. But it proves helpful to be appropriate and
adapting to them.
Describing the factors and conditions of learning, it is the statement
of Psychologist Simpson- “Along with the other conditions of
learning, some conditions are following- Proper health, good habits of living,
being free of the physical faults, good habits of study, emotional balance,
mental ability, act related maturity, desirable attitude and interest, better
social adaptation, freedom from tradition and superstition.”
On the basis of above opinions, the factors of
influencing learning can be divided into four parts: (A) Physical factors, (B)
Psychological factors, (C) Environmental factors, (D) Other factors.
(A)
Physical Factors
(1) Sense
organs—Physical factors are very important in influencing the process
of learning. First Physical factors, which are included in the process of
learning, are sense organs. The fi ve types of sense organs are watching,
hearing, taste, smell and touch. Representation is the basis of our whole
knowledge.
(2)
Physical and mental health— It is necessary to be
physically and mentally healthy for learning. The children, who are physically
and mentally fit, take interest in learning and soon learn. Unhealthy children
do not take interest in learning and tire soon, consequently they learn subject
less and lately. Because of tiredness there is trouble in the learning.
Tiresome person cannot do the work properly in spite of having interest and
inspiration. So it is necessary to pay attention on the physical and mental
health.
(3) Maturity—Learning
is closely related to maturity. As soon as child grows, his physical and mental
abilities also develop along. Thus, physical and mental maturity affects the
process of learning. From this point of view, mature child does not face any
difficulty in the learning, his energy and time do not go waste.
(B)
Psychological Factors
(1)
Inspiration and Learning—Inspiration has an important place in the
process of learning. In the process of learning the place, importance and the
utility of inspiration has been described in a separate chapter. It is
necessary to have a motivator in the learning. Motivator is an internal power,
which forces a person for action. The work, which is done by internal
inspiration, more zeal and creativity is seen in them. A teacher should have
good understanding about the needs, interests and motivations of children.
Need, motive and incentive are related to inspiration. If a teacher does not
understand these factors, he can not get success in the process of inspiration.
(2) Interest
and Aptitude—Learning is depended on the nature of a person. If a child
takes interest in any subject then he feels easiness and joy in the learning.
The first responsibility of a teacher is to develop an interest and aptitude in
a child. When a child gets an opportunity due to his interest and aptitude, he
exposes his whole personality, and learns that skillfully. It is necessary to
make the arrangement of giving education by examining the interest and aptitude
of the child in the schools, so that they could adjust themselves successfully
in various situations.
(3) Will
to Learn—The will of the person has an important place in the learning.
If a person has a will of learning, then he does learning in against
conditions. The person who has not any desire of learning, he cannot be taught
under any conditions. As a Psychologist has said, ‘’ A horse can be taken to
the pond, but you cannot compel him to drink against his desire.’’ So it is a
duty of a teacher after developing interest and aptitude in the children, to
make their will power strong.
(4)
Intellect—Intellect and capability of learning are closely related. The
distribution of intellect among the children is not equal. So the different
children have different kind of capability of learning. Learning mostly depends
upon the intellectual ability of learner. An intelligent child learns every subject
quickly, while a dull child takes time in understanding and learning. Opinion,
Imagination, rumination and decision power are related to intellect.
(C)
Environmental Factors Environment—
The progress of learning
mostly depends on the congenial environment. The act of learning cannot be
completed easily in the adverse situation. The psychological atmosphere of
class affects the process of learning. Montessori has said, it is very necessary
for a teacher to originate the psychological moment for the process of
learning. The place of study should be full of fresh air and light, which makes
mind and body healthy. Learning places, whether it may be school or home,
should be peaceful.
(D)
Other Factors
(1) Nature of subject matter—The
learning of any subject depends upon the nature of subject matter. For example,
in the textbook the lesson of interesting story is learnt easily and with
interest than that of complicated and criticizing essay. In this relation
teacher’ method of ‘simple to difficult of complex’ theory proves useful, Means
while teaching easy things, to grow towards difficulty.
(2) The Methods of Learning—In
Learning progress especially depends on the methods of learning. The
description of these methods has been done place to place. The methods of
learning according to the child will be so interesting and appropriate, as much
the learning will be easy. From this point of view, in the beginning classes,
‘playing method’ and ‘Learning by doing’ or ‘action method’ is used. In the
higher studies ‘Community related explanation’ and other methods are used.
(3)
Practice—In learning, an important factor that helps in bringing
progress, is practice. Practice affects learning very much. It has been said in
the ‘Rules of Practice’.
(4) Teacher
and the learning Process—A teacher has in important place in the
process of learning. In the dual process of learning, the conduct, thought,
behavior, personality, knowledge and learning method of teacher has a direct
effect on the student and the process of learning. Montessori, Frowail and
other Psychologists have called teacher as the path guide, gardener and artist.
A teacher can make the process of learning easy and fast for the students on
the basis of his talent and various materials
(5) Knowledge
of result—If learner keeps on getting the knowledge of his progress
while learning then he gets the encouragement and inspiration for further
learning. If he gets failure and mistakes, it is essential to have a knowledge
of this, learner gets the inspiration of attempting and improving again and
again. So a teacher should to give him knowledge of his progress, success and
result.
Besides the
above important factors the following factors can be looked into from the
additional educational learning point of view, on the basis of special
division-
(1) Factors belonging to the Learner—As
a family is the first school of a child, but when a child enters in the school
with the formalities, many curiosities originate in his mind, which he wants to
calm and he has to adjust with the new environment. In such conditions, the
process of learning is affected by many factors, as the child (who is the basis
of learning process) desires of learning, the level of ambition, educational
background, health, maturity, inspiration, the interest of learner, learning
time, the period of learning, intellect and the learning processes etc. Being
affected by these important factors he can go forward on the path of success
learning anything easily.
(2)
Factors belonging to the teacher—There are many factors belonging to
the teacher influencing the learning. For example, subject knowledge of the
teacher, psychological knowledge, methods of learning, the knowledge of
personality differences, proper behavior, child centered education, time table,
extracurricular activities and discipline etc. these are the factors, which
help teacher in teaching. In the absence of any one of these factors, learning can
not be completed.
(3) Factors
belonging to the subject matter—Some factors for influencing the
learning that belong to subject matter are following, as the nature of subject
matter, figure, language, method, series, example presentation, seeing hearing
material, the complete purpose of interesting subject matter, difficult levels
of different subject and its structure. The process of Learning is very much
affected by these factors. If few things is kept in mind in developing these
factors, learning will be stable.
(4) Factors
related to management to learning—there are many factors influencing
the learning and are related to management to learning. In order to maintain
this system many methods shall be deployed, like part vs. whole method,
sub-subject vs. focused learning, collected vs. distributed, organized vs.
contextual method, and active vs. inactive method.
(5)
Environmental factors—Many factors of environment affect learning,
As-heredity, knowledge of social heredity, the effect of environment, social
and cultural environment, informal reason of education, development of
personality, familiar and psychological environment, physical environment of
class and all situations.
(6) Group
characteristics, internal process—Man is a social an, animal, the
absence of it his existence is not considered. He develops much connectivity to
the group and community, and the rules of that group, customs, limitations, and
traditions affect him. It is necessary for a teacher to have knowledge of group
psychology to make the process of learning more effective.
Importance
of Learning for Teachers :
The proper knowledge of the above material related
to learning is very important to complete the teaching successfully. A teacher
can make teaching effective by using them.
The importance of learning for a teacher can be
expressed in the following way—
(1) A teacher
can use the knowledge of the principles of learning to bring desirable changes
in the behavior of child.
(2) A teacher requires the knowledge of the methods
of teaching, method of learning and the alternative of learning skill to
express skill in the teaching.
(3)After
choosing the rules and learning methods, a teacher can use them for the
progress of each child according to the personality differences.
(4) A teacher
can understand the importance of motivation in the learning with learning
knowledge, and can inspire the child for the learning by the proper motivation.
(5) Education related knowledge informs the teacher
with easily accessible and obstructive factor, so that, teacher can use the
effective factors paying attention to the obstructive factors.
(6) With the
help of learning knowledge, a teacher can make learning easy and interesting by
using the theory of evaluation and condition of learning.
(7) Obtaining the knowledge of learning, a teacher
can make valuable contribution and utilize the educational condition, and
according to the needs, he can try an expedition in improving the condition of
class.
(8) A teacher can evaluate the significance of his
teaching in context of changes happening in the student, or can decide the
validity and invalidity of the learning methods on the basis of evaluation
outcome of students.
Thorndike’s Stimulus-
Response Bond Theory:-
1- Thorndike
learning theory (S-R Theory)
Thorndike Trial and Error Learning
Theory
Characteristics of Trial and Error
Learning
Thorndike's Experiment
Thorndike's Laws of learning
Limitations of Thorndike's Theory of
learning
Edward L. Thorndike, in his book ‘Animal Intelligence’, in 1898,
delivered famous connectionism. The meaning of connectionism in learning
psychology is to make connection between stimulus and response. In the
connectionism, connection is established between stimulus and response. So it
is known by the name of stimulus
response theory.
In this theory along with
the inborn factors of a man, there is a connection between the internal and
external stimulus response. In the learning psychology ‘Stimulus Response
theory’ is an extensive theory whose researchers
According to these
psychologists, there is a stimulus behind each activity, which affects a man.
And he does responses according to that. Thus, stimulus is related with
response. The organizer of this opinion Thorndike has forced to establish
connection between stimulus and response for the learning. On account of
insisting this bond, Thorndike’s learning theory is called ‘stimulus- Response bond theory’
According to Thorndike, a bond is established between two or more
experiences. There is a stimulus for the processing of some action, which
causes response. Stimulus affects a man, according to that he responds. Thus, a
peculiar stimulus is connected to response; means there is a bond between
stimulus and response
Thorndike’s
theory is basis of three factors—
(1) Stimulus
or S factor, which includes in the situation of environment.
(2) Response or R Factor which exposes the activity
of behavior.
(3) Stimulus, Response and Bond factor, which
establish connection between stimulus and response. Or it binds stimulus with
response and the development of bond between stimulus and response is the
important thing of the theory of Thorndike.
According to the Thorndike— ‘’Learning, in the nervous system, is a matter of reinforcement
and making connection between stimulus and response.’’
According to Thorndike connection is established
between stimulus and response. Symbolically
it is expressed by S→R. Thorndike has presented the rules of learning
on the basis of S→R bonds. In his book ‘Educational Psychology’ he has written
widely about this theory in the educational field.
Characteristics of Trial and
Error Learning :-
(1) Bonding between stimulus and
response is learning.
(2) The process of bond between stimulus
and response is happened by trial and error. Learner tries
and mistakes many times for learningthe right process, but in many
trials depriving mistakes and doing errorless trial he learns the right
process.
(3) By trial and response learner becomes
expert in doingdefinite response for definite stimulus. For this he
selects right response among other possible responses, so Thorndike’s this
theory is also called ‘TheTheory of Selecting and Connectionism’.
According to Thorndike—
‘’Learning is the consequence of
selecting the right responses and connecting them with stimulus.’’
(4) This process of learning is
mechanistic, because the selection of right responses is possible
afterremoving the mistakes.
(5) There is response according to
stimulus, and according to that human behaviour is decided. Thus thistheory says that only stimulus decides and controls the
behavior, and along with a peculiar stimulus isneeded for a
peculiar response.
(6) Thorndike’s theory has given a
scientific base to the learning processin the field of
educationpsychology.
(7) This theory is a form of
associate theory.
Limitations of Stimulus-Response
Bond Theory :-
stimulus response bond theory has many
limitations, which can bedescribed in the following way-
(1) Stimulus and
response have not been explained properly in this theory.
(2) The structure of personality
has not been specially described in it; this is the reason why the
followersof this theory have considered psychoanalysis theory useful in their
opinions and researches.
(4) All the psychologists have called
this theory atomic and fragment.
(5) In this theory, useless
efforts are forced to learn any activities.
(6) Criticizing the effect and result of
the rule, the Practitioner have said that the process of learning hasbeen
incompletely explained in it.
(7) According to the
followers of Gastalt, the connection happens itself between experiences and we
find it in entirety, so there is no need for any kind of connection.
Following Elements
(7-stage ) involve in S-R Theory Experiment-
1.Drive:- Cat
was hunger & was intensified the sight of the food.
2-Goal- To get
at the food by getting out of the Box.
3-Block- The cat
was confined in the box with a closed door.
4- Random movements-
the cat persistently tried to come out of the box without knowing how.
5-Chance success:-
by chance, succeeded in opening the door.
6- Selection(of
proper movement):- the learner selects the right responses after certain
trials.
7-Fixation:-
Here right responses are fixed . it is s stage of errorless performance.
Experiments-
Thorndike put a
hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box had one door, which could be opened by
manipulating a latch of the door. A fish was placed outside the box. The cat
being hungry had the motivation of eating fish outside the box. However, the
obstacle was the latch on the door. The cat made random movements inside the
box indicating trial and error type of behaviour biting at the box, scratching
the box, walking around, pulling and jumping etc. to come out to get the food.
Now in the course of her movements, the latch was manipulated accidently and
the cat came out to get the food. Over a series of successive trials, the cat
took shorter and shorter time, committed less number of errors, and was in a
position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt
the art of opening the door. Thorndike concluded that it was only after many
randomtrials that the cat was able to hit upon the solutions. He named it as
Trial and Error Learning.
According to Thorndike,
it was necessary to have two things for learning the method of coming out by
cat
(i)
it being hungry of cat-
It was necessary that cat would be motivated for learning so that she could do
attempt
(ii)
To have a fish-so that
she could take its food.
Thorndike
delivered his rule on the basis of this experiment, which explains the
development in the learning of both animal and man, in stimulus-response bond
structure.
Question:-Explain the primarily and secondary laws of learning
describing by Thorndike
Law of
learning:-
Thorndike’s laws of learning are basis on the
stimulus- response bond theory or connectionism. According to this law when
there is a stimulus in front of a man, he is motivated for doing a peculiar
type of response. He studied the bond of stimulus and response and created the
primarily and secondary laws of learning
(A) Primary Laws of Learning—
Law
of Readiness
Law
of exercise
Law
of Effect
(B) Secondary Laws of Learning—
Law of Multiple Responses
Law of Mental set or Attitude
Law of Prepotency of Elements
Law of Response by Analogy
Law of Associative Shifting
(A) Primary Laws of Learning—
(1) Law of Readiness :-This
law is also called ‘Law of Motivation’. Accoding to this law when we are
ready to learn, we learn more quickly, effectively and with greater
satisfaction than when we are not ready to learn.
In
order to give education to a child firstly a teacher should develop such
conditions which originate interest and curiosity in a
child and he will be prepared for learning. For this, a teacher
can motivate a child for learning by many methods. Skillful teacher, asking
questions related to lesson or earlier knowledge can originate interest in a
child for the lesson by the new methods of learning. Teacher often says to the
student to come after reading the lesson. Thus he gets mentally prepared for
learning many things. And his preparations for learning help him in
concentrating. Thus, Notes child learns things easily, and gets
satisfaction in learning
Thus, the Law
of Readiness means mental preparation for action. It is not to
force the child to learn if he is not ready.
2- Law of Exercise:-(Law of
Practice)-
Law of exercise says that under a
situation, in order to determine a right response,
that response should be repeated again
and again. Which learning process we repeat many
times, we learn it easily. Learning can be made easy by exercise.
1)
Law
of use- “ When a modifiable connection is made between a
stimulus and response, other things being equal, that connections
strength increased if it it repeated a number of times”. This is called
the 'law of frequency'.(we say practice makes perfect.)
2)
Law
of dis-use “ When a modifiable connection is not made between a stimulus and response,
over a length of time ,that connections strength ,other things equal,
decreases.”.
Educational implications:
a) After learning anything, adequate
practice or drill should be undertaken to ensure that learning becomes stable
and effective.
b) Periodical review of learned material
is necessary.
c) Mere drill or exercise is not enough'
continuous feedback is also necessary.
d) Bad habits can be eliminated through
disuse, leading to atrophy or forgetting
(3) Law of Effect—This
law is also called the law of satisfaction or dissatisfaction
or Law of pleasure and pain”.
Every activity has its effective tone .some activities end in pleasure and other end in
pain.theactivities which are associated with pleasure or satisfaction tend to
be repeated again and again and the learning
become more effective. activities which are associated with pain, punishment or
annoyance are not repeated and their
strength is decreased.
Thorndike defines this Law as
fallows:-
“when a modifiable connection is made
between a stimulus and a response and is followed up by satisfying stable of
affairs, its strength increases; when followed by dissatisfying state of
affairs, its strength decreases”
(B) Secondary Laws of Learning—
(1) Law of Multiple Responses:-
According to
Thorndike, when some stimulus provokes any creature he does many responses to
get satisfaction, and there are multi responses before right response, out of
which many responses are useless. But if responses are not multiple, learner
could not learn right response.
On the basis of this law of
learning, a learner should be provided an opportunity by the improvement in his
mistakes in place of an obstacle in the way of learning resulting in search of
methods and different solution of learning, or he should be provided directions
in taking decision towards any definite and effective solution, so that he
could do less useless effort.
(2) Law of Mental set or Attitude:-
Mental
condition and attitude affect much in the learning. Favourable attitude comes.
If a learner has lack of expected attitude and mental conditions toward the
learning process, then he can’t do learning.
However much effective teaching will be.
According to Thorndike, how will a man react towards any stimulus is
depended on his pre experiences, his thought, culture etc. before his
adjustment with the society.
Often
social tendency become more effective on reacting. So it is necessary to
develop the curiosity and desirable condition of a child for the learning.
So, according to this rule, it is necessary that a child should be prepared
mentally before learning process.
(3) Law of Prepotency of Elements—
This law is also called the law of selective response. It means that
learner does not responds towards all the factors in troublesome condition, but
he has a potential in responding towards some selected factors. Towards
whichever condition, learner has potential in responding, is called the
elements of prepotency, which already exists in the learner. On the basis of
these elements of prepotency, response happens. To recognize these elements in
learning condition depends on the intellect of a learner. By the potency of
recognizing these elements, it is possible to make learning analytical and
conscious.
(4) Law of Response by Analogy—
Law of response by analogy mean responses done on the basisof
similarity or analogy of two situations.
In it, the use of previous knowledge and
earlier experience is done in the new learning condition. Here the theory of
transference does work. When some knowledge or experience is assumed properly,
or it is assimilated, then it can be easily transferred in any other learning
conditions. So it is also called the law of assimilation.
There is a process of connecting
knowledge and experience. A child should
understand that whatever is being explained to him is a string of knowledge, to
be obtained by him in the future. And he will feel as he knows very much
related to new knowledge.
On the basis of this, after establishing
relation between earlier knowledge and new knowledge, learnermakes given
knowledge his permanent part.
(5) Law of Associative Shifting—
Thorndike’s associative shifting law
means that the place of responseof learner goes on change; it shifts in the
form of formal and later conditions, which have relation?
During the time of providing new
knowledge to learner, if the same conditions are originated which werepresented
in the time of giving earlier knowledge, then learner will do the same
response. To establishthis kind of associative affinity between earlier and new
knowledge, is called associative shifting. So asfar as it can be, associative
conditions should be developed before learning, so that learner could shiftthe
place of knowledge.
Educational Utility of Trial and Error
learning method—
The important utility of trial and error
learning method is following—
(1) This method is like an
improveme nt method. By this method
child takes the benefi t of the experience obtained by his earlier errors.
(2) After doing continuous effort, the
characteristics of patience and hardwork develop in the children.
(3) In this method a child repeats the
activities which he likes, these activities as a stimuli inspire him in the
process of learning. He learns by the selecting successful process, so some
psychologists have said this method ‘Learning by selection of the successful
variation.
(4) This method is depended on the
practice. So learnt work gets permanent. So a teacher should encourage the
student, if student gets failure in any activity. This method is very useful
for serious subjects, as- math, science, grammar etc. The solution of the
problems of math, the opportunity of doing by the trial and error should be
provided. A child is more benefited by this method. The success after doing
many trials is permanent.
(5) A child knows the goal but not get
the idea of obtaining the goal, by this method, and then he does efforts
himself, which develop in him the characteristics of self confidence and
self-dependence.
These
characteristics help him in developing the capability of fi nding the solutions
of the problems and situations coming in the future, whose goals will be known
to him but not the way of obtaining them.
(6) This method is not useful for the
younger children.
(7) This method is specially not useful
for the dull minded children.
Classical
conditioning Theory:-(Pavlov theory)
Introduction
I. P. Pavlov
delivered the Conditioned reflex theory (1849–1936). He was the native
of Russia and a famous scientist. He was provided Nobel Prize in
1904 for doing the work on the digestion process.
In fact he was studying
the role of the flow of saliva in the digestion of dogs, at that time, he
noticed that there is growth in the flow of saliva of dog, when the food comes
and the sound of the feet of someone taking food is heard. After observing this
incident, he delivered learning related theory. Thus he became a psychologist
in the age of fifty.
He published two books are:
Conditioned Reflex and
Lectures on Conditioned Reflex.
This theory is known by the name
of Connected Reflex, ConnectedVariation, and Conditioned
Response. But on the basis of the experiment, done by Pavlov on thedog,
this theory has been given the name of ‘Classical Conditioned Theory’.
On the basis of nature
of this theory it has also been given
the name of ‘Response Bond Theory’.
Pavlov’s Classical Experiment—
Pavlov did his experiment on a dog in a laboratory. He
added a tube in the grand salivation after doing surgery which fell in a
utensil, which can be helped in the observation of salivation. During this
experiment, food was given to a dog on a certain time everyday.
Seeing the food the salivation of dog began to excrete. The presentation of
food was a natural stimulus and the process of salivation by this stimulation
was a natural response. Pavlov rang the bell in the second time, which was
unnatural stimulus, and the alertness of dog and twisting the ears with this
stimulation was an unnatural response.
After this Pavlov rang
the bell along with the presenting the food, means natural or unnatural
stimulus presented together, as a response the dog salivated. This was the only
response of both stimuli. This process was repeated in the laboratory many
times, by which food and bell means, natural or unnatural stimulus connected
reflexes were conditioned. Now in the third round Pavlov only rang the bell,
means only unnatural stimulus, but did not present food even then dog
salivated. Here it is an important thing that food as a stimulus substituted
bell as a stimulus. This is the learning of substitution. Which Pavlov named
conditioned reflex. Now a days
psychologists named the Pavlov conditioned Reflex Theory Classical
theory
Mechanism of Classical Conditioning:-
Complete in 3 steps i.e.,
UCS UCR
Cs + UCS UCR
Cs CR
Higher Order Conditioning—
Pavlov found on extending his experiment that other unnatural stimulus
also does the work of reinforcement after presenting it along with the
unnatural stimulus. Awakening natural response with the unnatural stimulus is
higher natural response. Pavlov presented unnatural stimulus as the rays of
light when the dog started salivating process on hearing the bell in this
experiment. It was done many times, after some times it was noticed that dog
salivated to see the rays of light (other unnatural stimulus). In this
experiment the process of salivating to see the rays of light is higher order
conditioning, because in the beginning, other unnatural (the rays of light)
stimulus was not presented along with the reinforced or natural stimulus.
Besides higher order conditioning,
Pavlov and his followers did many experiments on the dog, and presented many
important opinion on the basis of those conclusions, which extended to the
conditioning learning theory.
These opinions are following-
Temporal Relationship between
Conditioned Stimulus and Conditioning Stimulus—
It has beenfound in the experiments done
on the dogs, that the connection between CS and UCS is establishedwhen there is
a definite close timed relationship between them. In the experiment of Pavlov,
conditionedlearning was seen with the closeness of five seconds between CS and
UCS. There are three situations oftime closeness—
Ø Forward
conditioning: Learning is fastest in forward
conditioning. During forward conditioning the onset of the conditioned stimulus
(CS) precedes the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (US). Two common forms of
forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.
Ø Delay
conditioning: In delay, conditioning the conditioned
stimulus (CS) is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the
Unconditioned stimulus (US).
Ø Trace
conditioning: During trace conditioning, the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and US do not overlap. Instead, the conditioned
stimulus (CS) is presented, a period is allowed to elapse during which no
stimuli are presented, and then the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented.
The stimulus-free period is called the trace interval. It may
also be called the conditioning interval.
Ø Simultaneous
conditioning: During simultaneous conditioning, the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are presented and
terminated at the same time.
C.S.
............................................Food
.......................................
U.C.S.
..........................................Bell
.......................................
Ø Backward
conditioning: Backward conditioning occurs when a
conditional stimulus (CS) immediately follows an unconditional stimulus (US).
Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditional stimulus (CS)
precedes the unconditional stimulus (US),the conditional response (CR) tends to
be inhibitory. This is because the conditional stimulus (CS) serves as a signal
that the unconditional stimulus (US) has ended, rather than a reliable method
of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditional stimulus (US).
Ø Temporal
conditioning: The unconditioned stimulus (US) is
presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon
correct timing of the interval between unconditioned stimulus (US)
presentations. The background, or context, can serve as the conditioned
stimulus (CS) in this example.
Ø Unpaired
conditioning: The conditioned stimulus (CS) and
unconditioned stimulus (US) are not presented together. Usually they are
presented as independent trials that are separated by a variable, or
pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to study non-associative
behavioural responses, such as sensitization.
Important
Terminology
1-Extinction—
Pavlov stopped the presentation of
conditioned and unconditioned stimuli on the basis of time closeness in his
further experiments, means only the bell was rung but food was not presented
consequently, dog stopped the salivation process on sound of the bell. This was
called extinction.
It was found after evaluating each effort of dog in the salivation
process on the sound of bell that the quantity of salivation was
continuously less. Hence extinction finishes the conditioning process.
And it makes a weak the association of the sound of the bell and salivation
as conditioning reinforces that association.
2-Spontaneous
Recovery—
It
is seen in the observation of extinction related experiments that conditioning
never finishes completely; rather the capability to counter is developed in the
conditioning process.
According to Morgan and King—
‘’Extinction
is a process of learning to inhibit the response acquiredin conditioning.’’
If
the same conditioned and conditioning stimuli are presented many times, soon on
the basis of time closeness, conditioning is established after establishing
the relationship between both stimuli as disappearing or forgetting something,
the process of remembering it after it happens again.
For example when food and bell are not
presented altogether, it is seen the salivation of dog is stopped on the sound
of bell. This process is extinction. But after presenting the food and bell
sound in the time closeness again, the dog starts the salivation upon hearing
the sound of the bell- This is Spontaneous Recovery.
Inhibition—
Inhibition
is that process in the function of establishing conditioning, in which any
other stimulus originates inhibition in the response.
It can be caused by two reasons—
(a)
Internal Reason—in which any internal inhibition element does work, and
(b)
External Reason—in which any external inhibition element of environment does
work.
Generalization—
Generalization is
that process in which stimulus related to conditioning response seems same. For
example, if a dog has learnt salivation on the bell sound, he salivates on the
sound of metronome, because both have the same sound.
Reinforcement—
The difference between
conditioning process and extinction process is only presenting the conditioning
stimulus (food). It is clear from these differences that association is going
on reinforced or weak. It is necessary to have reinforcement for making
conditioning response.
Learning
by Conditioned Reflex—
Learning by conditioned reflex can be understood by the classical
experiments of Pavlov, which has been already described in the last chapters.
This is the beginning and appropriate example of learning by conditioned
reflex, which should be presented for the better understanding of the students.
Evaluation of the Conditioned Refl ex
Theory—
Conditioned
response method is depended on the above theory of learning, which is not
beyond of criticism, some psychologists do not consider it today in this way.
The following opinions are presented in this connection-
(1) It is easy to learn only animal by
connectionism. A man learns less through this process along with the age
growth. It does not play any important role in learning difficult subjects.
(2) Connectionism or conditioning is
only possible in special situations. These situations are unnatural, while
learning is possible in natural conditions.
(3) There is no stability in learning in
this method.
(4) This method forced very much for
practice and a different type of greed. The process of learning becomes
mechanical after presenting unnatural stimulus many times, which does not have
any newness.
Ø Implications
of Pavlov’s Theory to Classroom Situations :-
1. Classical Conditioning is used in
language learning by associating words with pictures or meaning
2. It can be used to develop favourable
attitude towards learning, teachers, subjects and the school
3. Developing good habits in children
such as cleanliness respect for elders punctuality etc through the use of
conditioning
4. Breaking of bad habits and
elimination of conditioned fear, through the use of deconditioning process.
4-. The theory believed that one must be
able to practice and master a task effectively before embarking on another one.
This means that a student needs to be able to respond to a particular stimulus
(information) before he/she can be associated with a new one.
5. Teachers should know how to motivate
their students to learn. They should be versatile with various strategies that
can enhance effective participation of the students in the teaching learning
activities.
6. Most of the emotional responses can
be learned through classical conditioning. A negative or positive response
comes through the stimulus being paired with. For example, providing the
necessary school material for primary school pupils will develop good feelings
about school and learning in them, while, punishment will discourage them from
attending the school.
Gestalt
Theory :-
I. Introduction
Max Wertheimer
is the father of Gestalt Theory. Later on, Wertheimer’s theory was
further refined and developed by Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler.
C.V.Good defines
gestalt-configration, total structure, form or shape, a term designating an
undivided articulate as a whole that cannot be made by the more addition of
independent elements, the nature of each element depending on its relationship
to the whole.
The
term ‘gestalt’ means a whole, a total composition. According to this
theory, an individual learns an object as a whole, a single entity, not in
parts or bits. In other words, an individual’s understanding of an object
comprehends the whole object, not merely parts or bits of the object. This
theory can be summed up in the succinct statement: ‘The whole is greater than
the sum of its parts.’
II. Life
sketch of Kohler
Kohler
was born on 21st January, 1887 in the port city of Reval (now Tallinn),
Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire. His family was of German origin, and
shortly after his birth they moved back to that country. There raised in a
setting of teachers, nurses and other scholars he developed lifelong interests
in the science as well as the arts and especially in music. In the course of
his University Education he studied at the
University of Tubingen (1905-06), the University of Bonn (1906-07) and
the University of Berlin (1907-09). In completing his Ph.D. for which his
dissertation addressed certain aspects of psychoacoustics. In 1910-13, he was
an assistant at the Psychological Institute in Franfurt in which he worked with
fellow psychologists; Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka. He immigrated to U S in
1935. And he died on 11th June 1967 in Enfield, New Hampshire.
III. Kohler’s
Experiments
In order to
establish the existence of insight, Kohler conducted a number of experiments on
a chimpanzee named Sultan. Although he conducted a number of other experiments
on dogs, hens, and other creatures, his experiments with Sultan were the most
noteworthy. Kohler divided his experiment in to four steps.
1. Experiment-
Sultan was placed in a cage. A stick was placed in the cage and a banana just
outside the cage, but outside Sultans direct reach. Sultan made many attempts
to obtain the banana but it failed. It sat down in despair. But, after sometime
it suddenly got up, lifted the stick and used it to draw the banana towards
itself.
2. Experiment-
In the second stage, Kohler placed inside the cage two sticks which could be
joined to each other. This time the banana was so placed that it could not be
drown by the chimpanzee towards itself with a single stick. After numerous
attempts, Sultan joined the two sticks together and succeeded in obtaining the
banana.
3. Experiment-
In the third step, Kohler hung the banana from the roof of the cage of such a
height as to ensure that Sultan could not reach it even by jumping upwards. A
box was also placed inside the cage. After many attempts, Sultan climbed up on
the box and obtained the bananas.
4. Experiment-
In the final step, Kohler placed two boxes at one place in the cage the banana
was placed at an even high level. At first, Sultan kept on trying to reach the
banana by standing up on one box, but after numerous failures, it placed one
box upon the other and claiming quit obtained the banana.
IV. Factors
Influencing Insight
Many experiments have thrown light upon and established the various
factors which influence insight. Some of them are mentioned below;
1. Experience
- Past experiences help in the insightful solution of the problems. A child
cannot solve the problems of Modern Mathematics unless he is well acquainted
with its symbolic language.
2.
Intelligence – Insightful solution depends upon the basic intelligence of
the learner. The more intelligent the individual is the greater will be his
insight.
3. Learning
Situation – How insightfully the organism will react depends upon the
situation in which he has to act. Some situations are more favorable than the
others for insightful solution. As a common observation, insight occurs when
the learning situation is so arranged that all the necessary aspects are open
for observation.
4. Initial
Efforts or Trial and Error – Insightful learning has to pass through the
process of trial and error. Whatever an activity may be, attempts or efforts or
trials always lie at its root. This opens the way for insightful learning.
5. Repetition
and Generalization – After having an insightful solution of a particular
type of problem, the organism tries to repeat it in another situation,
demanding similar type of solution. The way found in one situation helps him to
react insightfully in the other identical situations.
V. Characteristics
of Insight
The above mentioned experiments make it quite obvious that learning by
insight has certain characteristics of its own. They are briefly as follows;
1. Insight is
sudden.
2. Insight
alters perception.
3. Old objects
appear in new patterns and organization by virtue of insight.
4. Insight is
relative to the intellectual level. The higher species of animals including
human beings have more insight than the members of lower species.
5. In insight,
understanding is more useful than dexterity of hands.
6. Previous
experience is of assistance in insight. An organized perception is an essential
factor in learning.
7. Maturity
also affects insight as evidenced by the smoother working of insight in older
age than in adolescence.
8. If the
pieces essential for the solution of the puzzle are present together when
perceived, insight comes about earlier.
9. Learning by
insight is associative learning. Insight appears suddenly after the
manipulation of thoughts or objects for a small, through significant length of
time.
10. The
insight gained in particular circumstances is of assistance in other
circumstances.
VI.
Principles Involved in Insightful Learning
There are principles
involved in perceptual organization or insightful learning. Some of the basic
laws propounded by Gestalt psychologists are as follows;
1. Law of
figure ground: Everything is perceived in the context of its background.
Thus, close relationship is there between figure and ground. For example, we
try to solve a sum by using the means that closed areas are more stable and
satisfying than the unclosed ones. Closed areas form groups very easily. This
law is also called law of closure.
2. Law
of pragnanz:
An organism
is motivated to learn when there is tension or disequilibrium of forces in the
psychological field. Learning is the removal of this tension. When we perceive
an object, we find some gaps in our perceptions. These gaps are filled by the
perceiver and a whole figure is prepared.
3. Law of
continuity:
Objects having
continuity are learnt easily because they can easily make a whole.
4. Law
of similarity:
this law
makes the individual to grasp things which are similar. They are picked out as
they were from the total context. Similar ideas and experiences get associated.
An object revives another object which resembles or looks similar to it. For
example, seeing a man and remembering an intimate friend by some resemblance
though never saw them together in the past.
5. Law
of proximity: this law states the proximate or near together things are
picked up first and learnt easily than distant things. In other words,
perceptual grounds are favoured according to the nearness of their respective
parts. Items tend to form groups if they are spaced together. For instance, a
triangle or a circle is understood in this way.
VII. Educational
Implications
1. Subject
matter (learning material) should be presented in Gestalt form. The plant or
flower as a whole be presented before the students and later on the parts
should be emphasized.
2. In the
organization of the syllabus and planning of the curriculum, the Gestalt
principle should be given due consideration. A particular subject should not be
treated as the mere collection of isolated facts or topics. It should be
closely integrated into a whole. Similarly the curriculum should reflect unity
and cohesiveness.
3. This theory has brought motivation in the
fore-front by assigning purpose and motive, the central role in learning
process. It is goal oriented. Purpose or goals of learning should be made clear
to the students, before the teacher starts teaching.
4. The greater contribution of the insight
theory of learning is that it has made learning an intelligent task requiring
mental abilities. It has called a halt to the age old mechanical memorization,
drill and practice work which lack in basic understanding and use of thinking,
reasoning and creative mental powers.
5. It
emphasizes that the learner must be given opportunities for using his mental
abilities. Instead of telling him, how to do a work or solve a problem, he
should be placed in the position of an independent enquirer and discoverer. He
should himself collect the information and discover the knowledge. The teacher
should not engage himself in spoon-feeding but help the children in acquiring
knowledge and skill through their own attempts by using their mental powers.
Scientific and progressive methods like Heuristic method, analytic and problem
solving, which advocate the learning by insight, should be made more popular.
6. If the
teacher believes in the theory of insight learning he seeks, to overcome
impatience as the moment of insight is unpredictable and sudden. He must give
his students a chance to fumble and search for the solution. This fumbling and
search is more than trial and error procedure. It is purposeful experimentation.
It is a goal directed activity.
7. The teacher
must realize the necessity of preliminary steps of experimentation and
purposeful search so that the child may become capable of understanding or
perceiving cause and effect relationships.
8. As an arrangement
of the elements in the situation conditions insight, the teacher determines the
methods and order of presentation that will prove most helpful.
9. As insight
depends upon capacity, all pupils are not able to use insight in an equal
measure. The teacher recognizes differences in capacity and age and understands
classroom implications of readiness.
10. The
teacher will have build up insight step by step; be it History, Geometry or
Language, some insight is sudden but the learner always has partial (glimpses)
insight of the total.
11. The
function of the teacher is the teaching learning situation to help the child to
perceive the goal and the intervening obstacles. If the goal is too difficult
in terms of the pupil’s present development, it must be made easier or its
pursuit may be delayed. In a situation, where an obstacle blocks the perception
or achievement of the goal the teacher may take the following three steps-
a) Allow the pupil to grow by waiting or by
providing preparatory experiences and knowledge that will increase his power.
b) Make the problem less difficult. Get
easier text-books. Use more immediate goals. Find more concrete problems.
c) Give the pupil some help, offer
suggestions, hints, clues, show him how to take specific steps and arrange
sequential approach.
12. If the
goal is too difficult to reach and the child is forced to achieve it, without
making it easier or without delaying its achievement, so the child will develop
the tendency to escape. By making the task easier, there shall be partial
insights which mean relief from tension.
13. If insight
is to be achieved, school-tasks must not be too difficult to perform. They must
be appropriate to the understanding of the child on the part of the student and
there are more failures in examination, when the work is too difficult for the
pupils to achieve insight, or when explanations by the teacher or by the text
books are no sufficiently clear. The theory of insight learning lays especial
emphasis upon understanding to achieve success.
14. The teacher should not be frustrated if in
spite of his hard labour, pupils show progress and do not understand a
particular problem. The progress of growth is always slow.
15. Insight
lays emphasis on maturation. If the child is not mature enough let him grow by
waiting. Maturation is an important factor in the ability to perceive clearly
the relationship in the total situation and thus achieve insight.
16.
Development of insight is possible when goal are clearly defined. When the
learner accepts the goal, he will exert energy to achieve the goal. The student
should be led to discuss both the immediate and ultimate goals of learning. The
teacher should preview the activities involved and the problems to be faced. In
this way, he should lead the pupil to see the total situation at the beginning.
For examples; teaching a novel and teaching Chemistry where preview is needed.
17. The theory
helps the learner to develop reasoning, thinking and imagination powers and
thus their creative potentials are always encouraged.
VIII.
Criticism
Some of the
main objections against the gestalt theory are the following;
1. Gestalt is
a composite of Psychology and Philosophy of Education.
2. Every kind
of learning for example; reading, writing, speaking etc., cannot be
satisfactorily explained by the laws of Gestalt.
3. Some
scholars opine that the insight inherent in gestalt cannot be ascribed to
children and animals because they lack power of thought. However it is often
observed in daily life that even very young infants display insight in many of
their activities.
4. Trial and
error is an essential element in gestalt at one stage or the other.
Or
Educational Implications of Gestalt
Theory
1-Problem
Solving Approach: This theory emphasis that as the learner is able to
solve problems by his insight, meaningful learning, learning by understanding,
reasoning, etc. must be encouraged in the school.
2-From
Whole to Part: The teacher should present the subject matter as a whole
to facilitate insight learning.
3-Integrated
Approach: While planning curriculum, gestalt principles should be given
due consideration. A particular subject should not be treated as the mere
collection of isolated facts. It should be closely integrated into a whole.
4-Importance
of Motivation: the teacher should arouse the child’s curiosity,
interest and motivation. He should gain full attention of the whole class
before teaching.
5-Goal
Orientation: As learning is a purposeful and goal oriented task, the
learner has to be well acquainted with these objectives. He should be fully familiar with the goals
and purposes of every task.
6-Emphasis on Understanding: It has made learning an intelligent task requiring
mental abilities than a stimulus – response association. So the learner must be
given opportunities for using his mental abilities.
7-Checking of Previous Experiences: As insight depends upon the previous experiences of the learner, the
teacher must check the previous experiences of the child and relate them with
the new learning situation.
X Individual
differences:
(a) The
teacher keep in mind the intelligence level, maturity and other types of
individual differences. Intelligence plays a major role in learning by insight.
The more intelligent a child is, the more he will learn through insight. The
less intelligent child takes more time and makes more efforts to gain insight.
(b) Insight of
the child should be carefully handled by the teacher. He should know that its
development is related to the physical maturation of the child. He should
present the problem keeping in view the maluratior, of the child.
12. Logical presentation:
The teacher
should present his lesson logically. He should proceed from ‘simple to
complex’, ‘concrete to abstract’, ’empirical to rational’ and ‘psychological to
logical’. The problems presented in the class should be linked with life so
that the learners have the greatest benefit out of them.
Gestalt theory
was mostly criticized for being too descriptive instead of offering
explanations and models for described phenomena, investigating subjective
experiences like perception ,lack of precision in descriptions and just
qualitative description ,denying the basic scientific approach of understanding
a whole as a set of its parts.
4-Skinner
Operant Theory
Also k/a-
ü Instrumental Conditioning
ü Stimulus-response theory with reinforcement.
ü Contingency reinforcement theory
ü R-Type theory
Skinner’s
Operant Conditioning Theory
‘Operant Conditioning Theory’ is a method of
learning, which was developed by an American scientist B.F. Skinner. His
learning related opinions began to spread almost in 1932 century. His two books
‘The Behavior of Organism’ and ‘Beyond Freedom and Dignity’
are famous. Skinner’s name is mainly known in the list of behavioral scholars.
Skinner has described the two types of behaviors, as—
1-Respondent Behavior
2-Operant Behavior
(1) Respondent Behavior—
This type of behavior lives under control
of stimulus. For example, the excreting of saliva after taking food in the
mouth is respondent behavior. Other examples of respondent behavior can be
given by the experiment of Pavlov in addition of this example, as- to close the
eyes after throwing the light, to move away the hand after piercing the pin and
to draw away the hand after
touching the
hot thing.
(2) Operant Behavior—
This kind of behavior is somewhat different from the
above behavior. This behavior is not under the direct control of stimulus. It
is embed in the self desire of learner. Operant behavior does not happen until
a man is willingly ready for doing this type of behavior.
For example:-in the experiment of
Skinner, the behavior of rat is operant. In the same way after ringing the
bell, opening the door or not depends upon the desire of a man. On ringing the
bell, opening the door related behavior is operant behavior. In the experiment
of Skinner, for getting the reward, rat operates the lever.Therefore this type
of learning is called Instrumental Conditioning.
The Meaning of Operant—In the Skinner’ theory, the operant means, action
producing response or the collection of responses, by which a man attains goal
and he something gets from it. This is such a learning behavior, which is used
as an instrument of getting reward and outcome.
Prof. K.P. Pandey has given the definition of
operant in the following way—
‘’An operant is
technically defined as a group of responses or set of acts which are controlled
by the similar consequences.’’
Prof. S.S.
Chauhan has defined operant in the following way—
‘’The term operant emphasizes the
fact that behavior operates upon the environment to generate its own
consequences.’’
This conclusion comes from the
above opinions that operant is the some kind of behavior, but this behavior
does not remain under the control of its former stimulus. It is the quality of
operant behavior, that it is operated on the environment and generates outcome.
According to Skinner, operant behavior
is generated
by the man not by stimulus. He has used the word ‘operant’ for this reaction.
Skinner has presented the opinion of S type
conditioning in place of R type of conditioning, which means—the conditioning
and connection of outcome of response with the attainment, with the help of it
operant conditioning theory is derived, so now the opinion of operant
conditioning theory should be understood. The opinion of operant conditioning
theory is following—
Skinner—“Behavior is the movement of an organism or of it
part in a frame of reference provided by the organism itself.”
“Operant conditioning is the
learning process where by a response is made more probable or more frequent.”
The experiment
of Skinner:-
An experiment done on the rats is following—
Skinner
prepared a box for experiment which is called Skinner’s box. A lever was
added with this box. Which was connected to a bowl, and by the side of lever
there was a hole for the entering of rats. After pressing the lever the sound
‘khatt’ was echoed, and food come into the bowl. In this box a white hungry rat
entered into the box by the path, prepared by the side of lever. Rat wandered
here and there and leapt and jumped, naturally the lever was pressed by rat.
Food came into the bowl with the sound of khatt. Rat ate the food. Naturally
the lever was pressed again by the rat and food came with the sound of khatt,
which was again eaten by rat. Later on pressing the lever and having the food,
it was seen that rat started to live by the side of lever, pressing the lever,
eating the arrived food, the rat was set with comfort. After the repetitions of
this experiment, Skinner saw that on being hungry, rat began to press the
lever. This conclusion was found from this experiment Notes that “if any
strength providing stimulus is got after any action, there is growth in the
strength of that action.”
He did his
second experiment on the pigeons. Skinner used another special technique for
the experiment on the pigeons, which is called pigeon Box. The experiments done
on the pigeon, Skinner put this aim that pigeon, after completing a whole round
from the right side, learnt to peck on a certain place. With this experiment,
hungry pigeon which was imprisoned in the pigeon box, as soon as flying toward
the right side and started to peck on the certain place, he got a grain of
wheat. By this wheat it got strength for the repetition of its behavior, and
moving towards the right side it respond to peck the beak.
Consequently he got
a grain of wheat and that’s why the pigeon learnt the way to get the grain
(food) by the pecking beak and moving toward the right side.
Skinner gave
birth to a new conditioning theory in the field of learning by his experiments.
He found the conclusion that our learning related behavior is moved by the
operant conditioning. Our behavior and response is like operant conditioning to
some extent. Skinner gives a lot of importance to reinforcement in his
experiment, on which, his learning theory depends. So it is necessary to
understand the opinions on reinforcement.
Reinforcement:-
“A reinforcement is a stimulus event which if it the proper temporal relation
with a response, tends to maintain or the strength or a response or of a
stimulus response connection.”
Types of
Reinforcement
the types of
reinforcement can be divided into two groups—
(A) In Group :-
(1) Positive
Reinforcement (2) Negative Reinforcement
(B) In Group
(1) Primary
Reinforcement (2) Secondary Reinforcement
Positive
Reinforcement—Positive Reinforcement includes those
stimuli of Reinforcement whose presences increase the strength of response.
As—Food, is a positive reinforcement for a hungry man. In the positive
Reinforcement, a man does some positive response for getting something. It is
signed by S+.
Negative
Reinforcement—
Negative Reinforcement includes those stimuli Reinforcement whose
absence help in the development of growth. As—if a child does not eat the food
under the fear of dog, after going away of the dog he eats the food. In this
condition the absence of dog is negative reinforcement. It is signed by S—.
Often punishment is taken as a
negative Reinforcement, but there is difference between them. Negative
Reinforcement develops the strength of any response with its absence while
punishment makes the strength of any response weaker. Punishment diminishes the
probability of this happening in a response.
Primary
Reinforcement—In the Primary Reinforcement, Reinforcer
is that stimulus whose presence makes any response stronger, and its relation
is established with the needed physical arrangement as hunger, thirst, work,
security. For example rat gets the food after pressing the lever.
Secondary
Reinforcement—Secondary Reinforcement includes those
stimuli of response, which make strength of making any response stronger due to
their continued presence with the primary Reinforcement, means secondary
Reinforcement are those Reinforcement which do not have the capability in
themselves but joining with the primary Reinforcement, they get the capability
of doing Reinforcement. For example in the primary Reinforcement if sound is
echoed with the food, then sound even without food, does the response of
Reinforcement, it is called conditioning Reinforcement.
(a) Continuous
and Non-Intermittent Schedules—In which each emitted response is reinforced and
there is extinction without being reinforced.
(b) Partial or
intermittent Schedules—In which, only the partial schedule of response is
followed by the reinforcement.
On the basis of
above schedules, following four types of schedules can be developed-
(1) Fixed–Ratio
Schedule—It is called in brief FR. In it, a man is reinforced for a
response after many fixed response. As—After the five responses, the
reinforcement of one response. Here the average is 5 : 1
(2) Variable-Ratio
Schedule—In brief it is called VR. In the arrangement of this schedule, the
counting Notes of expected response is changed into average margin for the Reinforcement.
As—once fourth response is reinforced in the second time six and third time
first response was reinforced
(3) Fixes
Interval Schedule—In short it is called FI. In which the Reinforcement of
response is done on a fixed interval time, As – To do Reinforcement after five
minutes.
(4) Variable
Interval Schedule—In short it is called VI. In which the Reinforcement of
response is done on variable interval time. As—to do the reinforcement of any
response sometime 2 seconds and sometimes fives seconds and sometimes after the
eight seconds.
The
Effect of Reinforcement—In the process of Reinforcement,
the following effects come from the reinforcement factors:
(1) To make a
behavior stronger.
(2) To make sides fi xed for providing any happening
of the behavior.
(3) Changes take place in the behavior immediately.
The changed behavior is stable for some time and it becomes weaker in the
absence of the further reinforcement and finally it disappears.
The
Use of Reinforcement Theory in the Education—
There are the following uses in
the Reinforcement theory—
(1) This
theory is very important in the education, because it forces on the activity of
children.
(2) This theory strengthens the notion that on the
notion any activity can be increased the children by awarding the specific
prize.
(3) A child
can be prepared for the satisfaction of result forever after considering this
theory.
(4) Giving prize and appreciation has an important
place in giving education to the child.
(5) By the effect of this theory, changing
educational method according to its need, a child’s interest can be awaken
towards the study
Implication of the theory of operant
conditioning:
1.Conditioning study
behaviour:
Teaching is the arrangement of
contingencies of reinforcement, which expedite learning. For effective teaching
teacher should arranged effective contingenciesof reinforcement. Example: For
Self learning of a student teacher should reinforce student behaviour through
variety of incentives such as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting
on the back or by giving higher marks.
2. Conditioning and classroom behaviour:
During learning process child acquire
unpleasant experiences also. This unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the
teacher, subject and the classroom and learner dislikes the subject and a
teacher.Suitable behavioural contingencies, atmosphere of
recognition,acceptance, affection and esteem helps child in approaching teacher
and the subject. If student is not serious in study, teacher make use of
negative reinforcement like showing negligence, criticising student etc. but if
student is serious in study, teachermake use of positive reinforcement like
prize, medal, praise and smile
3-Managing Problem Behaviour:
Two types of behaviour is seenin the
classroom viz undesired behaviour and problematicbehaviour. Operant
conditioning is a behaviour therapy techniquethat shape students behaviour. For
this teacher should admitpositive contingencies like praise, encouragement etc.
for learning.One should not admit negative contingencies.
Example punishment(student will run away
from the dull and dreary classes – escape stimulation.
4.Dealing with
anxieties through conditioning:
Through conditioning fear, anxieties,
prejudices, attitudes, perceptual meaning develops. Examples of anxiety are
signals on the road,siren blown during wartime, child receiving painful
injection from adoctor. Anxiety is a generalized fear response. To break the
habits of fear, a teacher should use desensitization techniques. Initially
teacher should provide very weak form of conditioned stimulus.Gradually the
strength of stimulus should be increased.
5. Conditioning group behaviour:
Conditioning makes entire group learn
and complete change in behaviour is seen due to reinforcement. It breaks
undesired and unsocial behaviour too.
Example: Putting questions or telling
lie to teachers will make teachers annoyed in such circumstances students learn
to keep mum in the class. Asking questions, active participation in class discussion
will make the teacher feel happy – interaction willincrease and teaching
learning process becomes more effective.
6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes:
Reinforcement is given in different
form, for the progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When response is
correct, positive reinforcement is
given.
Example: A student who stands first in
the class in the month of January is rewarded in the month of December. To over
comethis Programme instruction is used. In this subject matter is brokendown
into steps. Organizing in logical sequence helps in learning. Each step is
build upon the preceding step. Progress is seen in the process of learning.
Immediate reinforcement is given at each step.
7.Shaping Complex
Behaviour:
Complex behaviour exists in form of a chain of small
behaviour. Control is required for such kind of
behaviour. This extended form of learning is shaping technique.Smallest
Behaviour is controlled at initial stage. On behalf of different contingencies,
next order of chain of behaviours is controlled. Example: Vocabulary in
English. Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex form of
behaviour.
|
Sr.No. |
Classical Conditioning |
Oprent Conditioning |
|
1- |
Classical
conditioning was developed by Russian psychologist Povlov and it is called
Pavlovian respondent learning.it help in learning of respondent behavior. It
is also known as classical respondent conditioning. |
Operant
conditioning was developed by B.F Skinner and is called Skinnerian or operant
learning.it help in the learning of operant behaviour |
|
2- |
it
is called Type S conditioning to emphasize the importance of stimulus in
eliciting desired response. |
It
is called Type R Conditioning because of the emphasis on the response. |
|
3- |
Beginning
is made with the help of specific stimuli that brings certain responses. |
Beginning
is made with the responses as they occur naturally or unnaturally,shaping
them into existence |
|
4- |
There
are is a definite connection between the stimulus and the response. It is the
stimulus which elicited a particular response. In it reinforcement is
provided by the unconditional stimulus. |
The
conditioned response cannot be correlated with any known stimulus.It is
emitted by the organism |
|
5- |
In
it the does C.R and U.R.are the same. |
In
it the response causes conditioned reinforcement to appear.Reinforcement
cannot fallow unless the conditioned response is given. So in operant
conditioning reinforcement is contingent upon conditioned response. |
|
6- |
It
measures respondent behaviour or involuntary behaviour of The autonomic
Nervous system. |
It
measures operant behavior or voluntary behavior of the central nervous
system. |
|
7- |
In
the environment acts upon the organism. Respondent behaviour depends upon continuity
or stimulus conditioning at the start of training. The association between
stimulus and response is on the basis of law continuity. hence classic
classical conditioning is governed by law of continuity. |
In
it the organism acts upon the environment operant behavior depends upon the
consequences. thus association between stimulus and response (S-R) is on the
basis of law of effect. Hence operant conditioning is governed by law of
effect |
|
8- |
There
is Pairing of unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus. |
There
is no Pairing of unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus. but pairing
of a response and the reinforcing stimulus which follow. |
|
9- |
Bond
between specific U.C.S and C.S. is estabilized. |
Tendency
to respond in a specific manner is developed. |
|
10. |
The
essence of learning is stimulus substitution |
The
essence of learning is response modification. |
|
11- |
it is stimulus oriented |
It
is response-oriented |
|
12. |
It
focus on the single stimulus response bondage. |
It
is concerned with sequence of responses.A chain of response is formed which
leads to the desied goal. |
|
13- |
unconditioned
stimulus is presented regardless of whether the conditioned stimulus occurs |
The
stimulus is presented only if the
organism makes the desired response. |
|
14 |
The
Classically conditioned reflexes may have zero strength initially. |
The
operant cannot have zero strength
because it has to occur at least once before it can be reinforced. |
|
|
|
|
¸ Unit-IV
MENTAL
HEALTH- Concept and Importance
Concept
One of the most important aims
of education is to help the individual in making adjustment with the changing
environment. It is the mental health which helps the person to adjust in the
environment.
Mental health stands
for the health of the mind Carter V.
Good in the Dictionary of Education (1959 P. 263) has termed it as. ―The
wholesomeness of the mind.‖
It is a state or condition on which an individual feels a sense of well
being. This condition also provides an individual the capacity to be resilient
to the stresses her / meets and to respond to these challenges without having
to compromise his well being. This also makes him productive and fruitful for
himself and his community.
WHO
defines mental health as – A state of complete physical,
mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
(2001).
Definition –
A state of emotional and
psychological well being in which an individual is able to use his or her
cognitive and emotional capabilities function in society, and meet the ordinary
demands of every day life.
Characteristics
of mental health:
1. Nothing called perfect mental health – No person is with
perfect mental health rather it is optimum mental health.
2. Mental health is a dynamic
concept: Mental health denotes a state of balance or equilibrium of
our mind, this balance is not static, it is quite dynamic.
3. Mental health can‘t be achieved without physical health. For
achieving an optimal level of mental health one has to first acquire adequate
physical health.
4. Mental health
and efficiency are not the same thing – One may be quite efficient and successful at his work or
profession but he could be most unhappy, full of anxiety etc.
5. Mental health and social ability are not the same thing- A
mentally healthy person is sociable. It is not necessary for a sociable or
socially adaptable person to be healthy minded.
6. Mental health differs from ethical standards – Morality does
not guarantee mental health.
Importance
of Mental Health
Mental health has much wider scope than physical health as it aims for
the development of wholesome balanced and integrated personality. Mental health
is very important because of following things:
1. Helps in the development of desirable personality – Mental
health helps in the development of a wholesome, well-balanced and integrated
personality.
2. Helps in proper emotional development – The individuals who
enjoy good mental health are supposed to demonstrate proper emotional maturity
in their behaviour. On the other side, those who are tense, disintegrated and
mentally unhealthy demonstrate sudden emotional outburst.
3. Helps
in proper social development- One‘s mental health helps one in becoming
sociable and establishing proper social relationships in the society.
4. Helps in proper moral development – The individuals who
enjoy sound mental health are usually found to behave as men of integrity and
character by following the ethical standards of the society.
5. Helps in proper aesthetic development – Proper mental health
helps the individual in the development of appropriate aesthetic sense,
artistic taste and refined temperament.
6. Helps in seeking proper adjustment – A mentally healthy
individual is an adjusted person. He is able to adjust his needs as per the
demands of the situation and well being of the society.
7. Helps in seeking goals of life – Optimum mental health
always helps the individuals to divert his energies in full capacity for the
realization of the goals.
8. Helps in progress of the society – Mental health helps the
individual to develop as well balanced useful citizens who are conscious not
only of their rights but also of their responsibilities.
9. Helps
in prevention of mental illness – A sound mental health and balanced
personality has enough resistance to fight against the odds of life and bear
the accidental stresses and strains of life in comparison to those with
impaired mental health.
What is “Adjustment”
The term “adjustment” originates from the biological term “adaptation”.
Biologists used the term “adaptation” strictly for the physical demands of the
environment, but psychologists use the term “adjustment” for varying conditions
of social or inter-personal relations in the society.
Adjustment means the
reaction to the demands and pressures of social environment imposed upon the
individual. The demand to which the individual has to react may be external or
internal.
Psychologists have
viewed adjustment from two important perspectives—“adjustment as an
achievement”, and “adjustment as a process”.
Adjustment as achievement:
‘Adjustment as
achievement’ means how efficiently an individual can perform his duties under different
circumstances.
If we perceive
adjustment as achievement, we have to set criteria to judge the quality of
adjustment. Four criteria have been evolved by psychologists to judge the
adequacy of adjustment. They are the following:
Physical health
Psychological comfort
Work efficiency, and
Social acceptance
Adjustment as process:
‘Adjustment as a process’ lays emphasis on the process by which an
individual adjusts to his external environment. It is important, especially
from teachers’ point of view. Students' adjustment largely depends on their
interaction with the external environment in which they live. They always try
to adjust to it. Piaget has studied the adjustive process from different
angles.
Piaget uses the term assimilation and accommodation to represent the alternation of oneself or environment
as a means of adjustment.
A person who carries
his values and standards of conduct without any change and maintains these in
spite of major changes in the social climate is called assimilator.
The person who takes
his standards from his social context and changes his beliefs in accordance
with the altered values of the society is called accommodator.
In order to adjust successfully
in society a person has to resort to both the devices i.e. assimilation and accommodation.
Characteristics of a well adjusted person:
A healthy and
well-adjusted person should possess/display some observable behavioral
patterns. These behavioral patterns must be according to the social
expectations of an individual. These patterns are as follows:
Maturity in thinking
Emotional balance
Warm and understanding
towards others
Free from tension due to
routine events
Independent in decision making
Elements in adjustment:
There are certain prime
elements for fulfillment of needs necessary for healthy adjustment of a person.
They are as follows:
v
Satisfaction of needs
v
No obstacle in achieving
needs
v
Strong motives in realizing
needs
v
Feasible geographical
atmosphere to fulfill needs
Maladjustment :-
Maladjustment is a term used in psychology to refer
the "inability to react successfully and satisfactorily to the demand of one's
environment". The term maladjustment can be refer to a wide range of
social, biological and psychological conditions.
Maladjustment can
be both intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic maladjustment is the disparities
between the needs, motivations and evaluations of an individual, with the
actual reward gain through experiences. Extrinsic maladjustment on the other
hand, is referred to when an individual's behavior does not meet the cultural
or social expectation of society.
Maladjustment is a complex problem of human
behaviour. It is very difficult to find out the appropriate cause. Home, School
and Society play an important role in causing maladjustment among the students.
Freud, Adler Jung etc. described different factors for maladjustment. Some of
those factors are given below:
Causes of Maladjustment : There are many causes of maladjustment.
These can be categorized as-
a. Personal :
|
|
Physique : If a child is very
weak, ugly and possesses sensory handicap he may suffer from different types
of handicap which may cause maladjustment. |
|
|
Poverty : Poverty is also an
important factor which develops maladjustment among children. The main cause
behind it is that in a poor home, the parents cannot fulfill the legitimate
needs of heir children. Frustration owing to the non-fulfillment of the needs
actually lead to maladjustment behavior. |
|
|
Personal inadequacy : A nervous sense
of inadequacy is a cause for mal-adjustment. Suppose a student is not so
brilliant, but his parents are very ambitious and set high goals for them.
This may lead him to frustration and as a result he may develop problems of
maladjustment. |
|
|
Parental attitude : If a child is
rejected by their parents from an early childhood the child may develop the
feeling of insecurity, helplessness and loneliness. Rejection and lack of
affection may lead to maladjustment behavior. |
|
|
Emotional shock : Children who
experience emotional shocks, such as death, accident, riots, flood etc may
manifest signs of maadjustment in their behavior. |
|
|
Prolonged sickness and
injury : Prolonged sickness may cause maladjustment among children. |
|
|
Broken home : The children who come
from broken homes (broken by death of parents, divorce and separation,
physical or mental handicap) etc. may lead to maladjustment among children. |
B.Socil factors
|
|
Religious Belief: In this era of
modernization, adolescents often get confused about the traditional religious
beliefs for which they do not find any rational basis and as a result suffer
from a lack of positive attitude and get frustrated. |
|
|
Mobility of Parents: Children whose
parents move from one place to another very frequently face different types
of problems. This may lead to maladjustment on the part of the children who
suffer from a feeling of insecurity. |
|
|
Employment insecurity: Uncertain about
proper employment opportunities after getting higher degrees is another
important factor for causing maladjustment among the students. |
C.School:
School conditions also play a vital role in the lack of adjustment of children.
Some of the factors in the connection are:
|
|
Inadequate curriculum: Our present
curriculum is not meeting the psychological, social as well as the physical
needs of our children at different stages. These rather create frustration in
our children as a result of which the children find themselves maladjusted in
their real life situations. |
|
|
Lack of proper
recreational facilities: Children who are not getting scope for extra
curricular activities like play, library, debates discussion etc may suffer
from maladjustment problem. |
|
|
Improper classroom
climate: If there is no good relationship between students and teacher,
as well as among the peers, the students may suffer from emotional problems,
which in turn lead to maladjustment. |
|
|
Inadequate training of
teacher’s for balancing the mental health and hygiene: The teacher’s are
not properly trained in Educational Psychology and mental hygiene; they face
tremendous problems in handling the children. They cannot properly deal with
the problems of their students. This result in the problems of maladjustment
for the students. |
PREVENTIVE
MEASURES OF MALADJUSTMENT
Following
are the measures which prevent maladjustment;
1.
Proper encouragement –
Parents and teachers should speak daily with the child about his daily
activities. So the child can begin to learn the principles of socialization.
2. Proper
appreciation – Parents and teachers should directly praise the child
for the good things he has done.
3.
Delegating responsibility –
Parents and teachers should assign some responsibility to the child. This
responsibility should evolve tasks which the child perceives as real and
important.
4. Provision
of entertainment – Provide entertainment facilities like parks, sports
clubs, amusement places, theaters, museum to children. We should encourage the
child to engage in playing with his peers.
5. Testing
– Refer the child for special education testing. In some instances, maladjusted
children are eligible for special education services.
6. Pattern
of relaxation – The teacher should set a pattern of calmness. Yoga,
meditation, stress management courses plays very important roles in preventing
maladjustment.
7.
Informing progress – Teacher
should inform the child of the progress he is making.
8.
Timely help – Teacher should
help the child when he needs it and not only when he asks for it. If the
teacher is wise enough to know when the child requires help, he may be able to
help him avoid many traumatic failure experiences.
9.
Moral Education – School
should provide value education through various methods. Self confidence,
co-operation, caring and sharing are the values that can be inculcated through
cocurricular programmes.
10.Guidance
and counseling – If the teacher works as a guide and counselor for
parents and children, many of the negative situations can be turned into
positive ones which are beneficial to students.
Defence mechanism:-
Sigmund
Freud (1894, 1896) noted a number of ego defenses which he refers to throughout
his written works. His daughter Anna
Freud (1936) developed these ideas
and elaborated on them, adding ten of her own. Many psychoanalysts have
also added further types of ego defenses.
Defense mechanisms are psychological
strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising
from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.
Why do we need Ego defenses?
We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from
feelings of anxiety or guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or
because our id or superego becomes
too demanding.
Defense
mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant
feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual.
Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out
of proportion (i.e., used with frequency), neuroses develop, such as anxiety
states, phobias, obsessions, or hysteria.
Here are a few common defense
mechanisms:There are a large number of defense mechanisms; the main ones are
summarized below.
Here are a few common
defense mechanisms:
- Denial
- Repression
- Projection
- Displacement
- Regression
- Sublimation
- Rationalization
- Reaction Formation
- Identification with the Aggressor
1.
Denial
Denial
is a defense me chanism proposed by Anna
Freud which involves a refusal to accept reality, thus blocking external events
from awareness.
If a situation is just too much to handle, the
person may respond by refusing to perceive it or by denying that it exist.
As you might imagine, this is a primitive and
dangerous defense - no one disregards reality and gets away with it for
long! It can operate by itself or, more commonly, in combination with
other, more subtle mechanisms that support it.
What is an example of denial?
Many people use denial in
their everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their
life they don’t wish to admit.
For example, a husband
may refuse to recognise obvious signs of his wife’s infidelity. A student may
refuse to recognise their obvious lack of preparedness for an exam!
2.
Repression
Repression
is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or
threatening thoughts from becoming conscious.
Thoughts that are often repressed are those
that would result in feelings of guilt from the superego.
This is not a very successful defense in the
long term since it involves forcing disturbing wishes, ideas or memories into
the unconscious, where, although hidden, they will create anxiety.
Repressed memories may appear through
subconscious means and in altered forms, such as dreams or slips of the tongue
('Freudian slips').
What
is an example of repression?
For example, in the oedipus complex, aggressive
thoughts about the same sex parents are repressed and pushed down into the
unconscious.
3. Projection
Projection
is a psychological defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud in which an
individual attributes unwanted thoughts, feelings and motives onto another
person.
What
is an example of projection?
Thoughts most commonly projected onto another
are the ones that would cause guilt such as aggressive and sexual fantasies or
thoughts.
For instance, you might hate someone, but your
superego tells you that such hatred is unacceptable. You can 'solve' the
problem by believing that they hate you.
4. Displacement
Displacement
is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless
substitute target. The target can be a person or an object that can serve as a
symbolic substitute.
Displacement occurs when the Id wants to do
something of which the Super ego does not permit. The Ego thus finds some other
way of releasing the psychic energy of the Id. Thus there is a transfer of
energy from a repressed object-cathexis to a more acceptable object.
What
is an example of displacement?
Someone who feels uncomfortable with their
sexual desire for a real person may substitute a fetish.
Someone who is frustrated by his or her
superiours may go home and kick the dog, beat up a family member, or engage in
cross-burnings.
5. Regression
Regression
is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud whereby the the ego reverts to an
earlier stage of development usually in response to stressful situations.
Regression functions as form of retreat,
enabling a person to psychologically go back in time to a period when the
person felt safer.
What
is an example of regression?
When we are troubled or frightened, our
behaviors often become more childish or primitive.
A child may begin to suck their thumb again or
wet the bed when they need to spend some time in the hospital. Teenagers
may giggle uncontrollably when introduced into a social situation involving the
opposite sex.
6. Sublimation
Sublimation is
similar to displacement, but takes place when we manage to displace our
unacceptable emotions into behaviors which are constructive and socially
acceptable, rather than destructive activities. Sublimation is one of Anna
Freud's original defense mechanisms.
Sublimation for Freud was the cornerstone of
civilized life, as arts and science are all sublimated sexuality. (NB.
this is a value-laden concept, based on the aspirations of a European society
at the end of the 1800 century).
What
is an example of sublimation?
Many great artists and musicians have had
unhappy lives and have used the medium of art of music to express
themselves. Sport is another example of putting our emotions (e.g.,
aggression) into something constructive.
For example, fixation at the oral stage of
development may later lead to seeking oral pleasure as an adult through sucking
one's thumb, pen or cigarette. Also, fixation during the anal stage may
cause a person to sublimate their desire to handle faeces with an enjoyment of
pottery.
7. Rationalization
Rationalization
is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud involving a cognitive distortion
of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We do
it often enough on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with
excuses.
But for many people, with sensitive egos,
making excuses comes so easy that they never are truly aware of it. In
other words, many of us are quite prepared to believe our lies.
What
is an example of rationalization?
When a person finds a situation difficult to
accept, they will make up a logical reason why it has happened. For example, a
person may explain a natural disaster as 'God's will'.
. 8. Reaction Formation
Reaction formation is a psychological
defense mechanism in which a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the
opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels.
Conscious behaviors are adopted to
overcompensate for the anxiety a person feels regarding their socially
unacceptable unconscious thoughts or emotions. Usually, a reaction formation is
marked by exaggerated behavior, such as showiness and compulsiveness.
By using the reaction
formation, the id is satisfied while keeping the ego in ignorance of the true
motives.
Therapists often observe reaction formation in
patients who claim to strongly believe in something and become angry at
everyone who disagrees.
What
is an example of reaction formation?
Freud claimed that men who are prejudice
against homosexuals are making a defense against their own homosexual feelings
by adopting a harsh anti-homosexual attitude which helps convince them of their
heterosexuality.
Another example of reaction formation includes
the dutiful daughter who loves her mother is reacting to her Oedipus hatred of
her mother
9. Identification with the Aggressor
Identification
with the aggressor is a defense mechanism proposed by Sandor Ferenczi and later
developed by Anna Freud. It involves the victim adopting the behavior of a
person who is more powerful and hostile towards them.
By internalising the behavior of the aggressor
the 'victim' hopes to avoid abuse, as the aggressor may begin to feel an
emotional connection with the victim which leads to feelings of empathy.
What
is an example of identification with the aggressor?
An
extreme example of this is the Stockholm Syndrome, where hostages establish an
emotional bond with their captor(s) and take on their behaviors.
Patty Hearst was abused and raped by her
captors, yet she joined their Symbionese Liberation Army and even took part in
one of their bank robberies. At her trial, she was acquitted because she
was a victim suffering from Stockholm Syndrome.
UNIT-V
INTELLIGENCE
AND ITS VARIOUS THEORY)
Nature and Definition of
Intelligence
“What
is intellect?” Psychologists have different opinions in regard of this
question. Different Psychologists have described the nature of intelligent
according to their opinion. So we can understand the nature of intelligence
after studying the definitions given by them.
The
definitions given by psychologists are following—
1.
According
to W. Stern— “Intelligence is a general capacity of
an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new situation.”
2.
According
to C. Burt—“Intelligence is the innate capacity to adapt
relatively to new situations.’’
3.
According to A. Binet—“To judge well, to comprehend
well, to reason well, these are the essential activities of intelligence.’’
4.
According to Thorndike—“Intelligence is the power of
good response from the point of view of truth or fact.’’
5.
According to Woodworth—“Intelligence is a way of
acting.’’
6.
According to Buckingham—“Intelligence is the ability to
learn.”
7.
According to W. C. Dougall—“Intelligence is the capacity to
improve upon innate tendency in the light of previous experience.
8.
According to Buckingham—“Intelligence is the ability to
learn.”
9.
According to W. C. Dougall—“Intelligence is the capacity to
improve upon innate tendency in the light of previous experience.
Characteristics of Intelligence
On the basis of the definitions given by psychologists, intelligence has
following characteristics—
1.
Intelligence is an innate power. It is gained from heredity.
2.
Intelligence is the power, by which, a man organizes his behavior according to
the situation after removing its complication.
3-Intelligence is the capacity of learning.
4. Intelligent is the ability of taking advantage from previous experiences.
5. Intelligence is the ability of abstract thinking, means with the help of intelligence we can think of something which is not evident.
6. Intelligence is the set of different abilities.
7. Intelligence is the essence of all special abilities.
8. Knowledge obtained by intelligence can be used in new situations.
9. There is difference between intelligence and knowledge.
10. Due to the sexual differences, difference is not seen in intelligence.
11. Intelligence is the power of introspection. Intelligence itself criticizes the actions and thoughts done by a man.
12. Intelligence tries to understand any problem, and then inspires the mind to take decision
Difference
between Intelligence and Knowledge :-
According to the psychologists there are following differences between intelligence and knowledge—
1. Intelligence is an innate power obtained by heredity, while knowledge is obtained power. Knowledge is attained in environment.
2. Intelligence is stable, knowledge is increased by gaining. Intelligence is not more or less, but knowledge can increase.
3. More intelligence can develop more knowledge, but more knowledge cannot develop more intelligence.
4. A man can be a scholar, but it is not necessary that he will be intelligent. In this way it is not necessary that whoever is intelligent, will also be a scholar.
5. To know many things is knowledge, but to use them is intelligence.
6. Psychologist Ross said that “Intelligence is the goal and knowledge is only a way to reach it.’’
7. Psychologist Ballard said that “Intelligence is a mental ability which is evaluated by the means like knowledge, interest and habit.’’
8. “In the worldly life intelligence the usable knowledge and thinking is intelligence.’’ These thoughts have been expressed by Sir Adams.
9. If a man’s intelligence is destroyed, his knowledge is finished.
10. Intelligent men can face difficulties easily, while scholars are unable in doing so.
Kinds
of Intelligence
Psychologist Thorndike has considered intelligence, as the collection of many abilities. He has given the following three types on the basis of it—
1. Abstract Intelligence
2. Social Intelligence
3. Motor or Mechanical Intelligence
1. Abstract Intelligence—Minor feelings are known by this intelligence. Poets, Author, Painter etc express their feeling by this intelligence. Words, digits and symbols are used in this type of learning. This is a process of learning the academics. And the processes of solving of those problem in which words and symbols are used. So it is the giving of abstract and oral intelligence to express the opinion by the medium of words and symbols. It is necessary to develop Abstracts intelligence in such subjects as- reading, Mathematics, Geography, History in school. New planning, new invention, new rumination is possible by this intelligence.
Abstract intelligence can be tested by three types—
a. Level of ambition—by the evaluation of the level of the ambition of a man, that man’s abstract intelligence is known. Highly ambitious man will have high intelligence.
b. Doing different types of job—The man who are involved in different type of working, their capacity of working can be known under abstract intelligence.
c. Speed of doing work—the man who does abstract actions with high speed. His abstract intelligence will be less or more according to that.
2-Social Intelligence—This intelligence is related to the social conditioning, which helps a man in adapting according to the society. Due to the social intelligence, a man affects another man with his behavior. This type of man is happy, practical and takes interest in social activities. Due to the social intelligence a man leads a successful life in society. These types of men are occupational, politician and social worker
3-Mechanical Intelligence—Mechanical intelligence means the power or ability, by which, a man can adjust himself with the situation related to mechanical or material things. The children, who have this intelligence, are seen in the starting period. They try to repair by opening their watch, toy and bicycle. Such children, after growing up, become expert mechanic, engineer. Mechanically intelligent children are expert in games and physical activities.
Unifactor or Monarchic Theory—
It has been called one factor theory. The followers of this theory are Binet, Terman and Stern. According to it, intelligence is a unit and entire intelligence does only one type of work at one time when active. According to this theory intelligence is the most powerful mental power, which dominates all mental abilities. But this theory is considered faulty, because we cannot say if a person is good in Mathematics, he will be good in arts as well.
The Two Factor Theory—
This theory proposed by , Spearman. According to this theory, there are two factors of intelligence, means intelligence can be divided between two parts. (a) General Ability or ‘G’ factor (b) Specifi c Ability or ‘S’ factor
According to Spearman, intelligence is the addition of two kinds of strengths. General ability helps a man in all kinds of activities and special ability helps in doing some special work. As-one is intelligent in music or art and other in Maths or Science. For the skillfulness in special activities, ‘S’ factor is needed.
General factor of intelligence has following characteristic—
ü it is found in all the factors.
ü It is innate.
ü This factor is always equal.
ü There is difference in the general ability of every person.
ü The man who has this factor more, he gets more success than other person.
ü This factor is more needed in all works of life
Characteristic
of Special Factor of Intelligence—
ü this factor is found in different people in less or more quantity.
ü Different kinds of special factor are determined for different activities.
ü the person who has more quantity of any special factor, he gets more ability in that.
ü Special factor can be acquired.
ü Different
persons have different kinds of special factors.
Thorndike’s multifactor theory
:
Thorndike believed that there was nothing like General Ability. Each mental activity requires an aggregate of different set of abilities. He distinguished the following four attributes of intelligence :
(a) Level—refers to the level of difficulty of a task that can be solved.
(b) Range—refers to a number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty.
(c) Area—means the total number of situations at each level to which the individual is able to respond. (d) Speed—is the rapidity with which we can respond to the items
Thurstone’s theory :
Primary mental abilities/Group factor theory:
States that Intelligent Activities are not an expression of innumerable highly specific factors, as Thorndike claimed. Nor is it the expression primarily of a general factor that pervades all mental activities.
It is the essence of intelligence, as Spearman held. Instead, the analysis of interpretation of Spearman and others led them to the conclusion that ‘certain’ mental operations have in common a ‘primary’ factor that gives them psychological and functional unity and that differentiates them from other mental operations.
These mental operations then constitute a group. A second group of mental operation has its own unifying primary factor, and so on. In other words, there are a number of groups of mental abilities, each of which has its own primary factor, giving the group a functional unity and cohesiveness.
Each of these primary factors is said to be relatively independent of the others. Thurstone has given the following six primary factors :
(i) The Number Factor (N)—Ability to do Numerical Calculations rapidly and accurately.
(ii) The Verbal Factor (V)—Found in tests involving Verbal Comprehension.
(iii) The Space Factor (S)—Involved in any task in which the subject manipulates the imaginary object in space.
(iv) Memory (M)—Involving ability to memorize quickly.
(v) Word Fluency Factor (W)—Involved whenever the subject is asked to think of isolated words at a rapid rate.
(vi) The Reasoning Factor (R)—Found in tasks that require a subject to discover a rule or principle involved in a series or groups of letters.
·
(vii) Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and
similarities among objects
Based on these factors Thurstone constructed a new test of intelligence known as ‘‘Test of Primary Mental Abilities (PMA).’’
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
·
Psychology Today
states that social intelligence “…develops from experience with people and
learning from success and failures in social settings. It is more commonly
referred to as “tact,” “common sense,” or “street smarts.”
The magazine describes
critical traits for people with high SQ:
They can carry on
conversations with a wide array of people and verbally communicate with
appropriate and tactful words, also known as “social expressiveness skills.”
They’re adept at
learning how to play different social roles, and well-versed at the informal
rules of the game that are the creed of social interaction.
They’re known to be
excellent listeners.
They know how to
efficiently analyze what makes people tick by paying attention to what they’re saying
and how they’re behaving.
Not only do they know
how to learn to play different social roles; they put those skills into
practice to feel at ease with many different types of personalities.
They take care of the
impression of themselves they exude on other people. This is the hardest
skillset because it requires “…a delicate balance between managing and
controlling the image you portray to others and being reasonably “authentic”
and letting others see the true self.”
Emotional intelligence or EQ?
ü Emotional intelligence (otherwise known as emotional
quotient or EQ) is the ability to understand, use, and manage your own emotions
in positive ways to relieve stress, communicate effectively, empathize with
others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict.
ü Emotional intelligence helps you build stronger
relationships, succeed at school and work, and achieve your career and personal
goals.
ü It can also help you to connect with your feelings,
turn intention into action, and make informed decisions about what matters most
to you.
Emotional intelligence is
commonly defined by four attributes:
Self-management – You’re able to control impulsive feelings and
behaviors, manage your emotions in healthy ways, take initiative, follow
through on commitments, and adapt to changing circumstances.
Self-awareness – You recognize your own emotions and how they affect
your thoughts and behavior. You know your strengths and weaknesses, and have
self-confidence.
Social awareness – You have empathy. You can understand the
emotions, needs, and concerns of other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel
comfortable socially, and recognize the power dynamics in a group or
organization.
Relationship
management – You know how to develop
and maintain good relationships, communicate clearly, inspire and influence
others, work well in a team, and manage conflict.
Why
is emotional intelligence so important?
As we know, it’s not the
smartest people who are the most successful or the most fulfilled in life. You
probably know people who are academically brilliant and yet are socially inept
and unsuccessful at work or in their personal relationships.
Intellectual ability or your intelligence quotient (IQ) isn’t enough on
its own to achieve success in life. Yes, your IQ can help you get into college,
but it’s your EQ that will help you manage the stress and emotions when facing
your final exams. IQ and EQ exist in tandem and are most effective when they
build off one another.
Emotional intelligence affects:
performance at school or work. High emotional intelligence can help you navigate
the social complexities of the workplace, lead and motivate others, and excel
in your career. In fact, when it comes to gauging important job candidates,
many companies now rate emotional intelligence as important as technical
ability and employ EQ testing before hiring.
physical health. If you’re unable to manage your emotions, you are
probably not managing your stress either. This can lead to serious health
problems. Uncontrolled stress raises blood pressure, suppresses the immune
system, increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes, contributes to
infertility, and speeds up the aging process. The first step to improving
emotional intelligence is to learn how to manage stress.
mental health. Uncontrolled emotions and stress can also impact your mental health,
making you vulnerable to anxiety and depression. If you are unable to
understand, get comfortable with, or manage your emotions, you’ll also struggle
to form strong relationships. This in turn can leave you feeling lonely and
isolated and further exacerbate any mental health problems.
relationships. By understanding your emotions and how to control
them, you’re better able to express how you feel and understand how others are
feeling. This allows you to communicate more effectively and forge stronger relationships,
both at work and in your personal life.
social intelligence. Being in tune with your emotions serves a social
purpose, connecting you to other people and the world around you. Social
intelligence enables you to recognize friend from foe, measure another person’s
interest in you, reduce stress, balance your nervous system through social
communication, and feel loved and happy.
Unit
V : Personality
Concept, Dimensions & Theories of
personality- psycho-analytic, Trait, Type
Measurement of personality-projective
techniques, etc.
THE
CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY- DEFINITION:
“Personality is that pattern of
characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that distinguishes one person
from another and that persists over time” “It is the sum of biologically
based and learnt behaviour which forms the person's unique responses to
environmental stimuli”
DIMENSIONS
OF PERSONALITY:
The
Big Five personality traits, also known as the five factor model (FFM),
is a model based on common language descriptors of personality (lexical
hypothesis). These descriptors are grouped together using a statistical
technique called factor analysis (i.e. this model is not based on scientific
experiments). This widely examined theory suggests five broad dimensions used
by some psychologists to describe the human personality and psyche. The five
factors have been defined as openness to experience, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, often listed under the acronyms “OCEAN”.
|
Dimension of Personality |
High Level |
Low level |
|
Openness to experience |
Inventive, Curious |
Cautious, Conservative |
|
Conscientiousness |
Efficient, Organised |
Easy going, Careless |
|
Extraversion |
Outgoing, Energetic |
Solitary, Reserved |
|
Agreeableness |
Friendly, Compassionate |
Competitive, Outspoken |
|
Neuroticism |
Sensitive, Nervous |
Secure, Confident |
These five factors are assumed to represent the
basic structure behind all personality traits. They were defined and described
by several different researchers during multiple periods of research. Employees
are sometimes tested on the Big Five personality traits in collaborative
situations to determine what strong personality traits they can add to a group dynamic.
Businesses need to understand their people as well as their operations and
processes. Understanding the personality components that drive the employee
behavior is a very useful informational data point for management.
THE
FIVE DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY: (THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL)
a. Openness to experience:
(inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious):
Openness to experience describes a person's degree
of intellectual curiosity, creativity, appreciation for art, emotion,
adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience. It is also
described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or independent, and
depicts a personal preference for a variety of activities over a strict
routine. High openness can be perceived as unpredictability or lack of focus.
Moreover, individuals with high openness are said to pursue self-actualization
specifically by seeking out intense, euphoric experiences, such as skydiving,
living abroad, gambling, etc. Conversely, those with low openness seek to gain
fulfilment through perseverance, and are characterized as pragmatic and
datadriven—sometimes even perceived to be dogmatic and closed-minded. Some
disagreement remains about how to interpret and contextualize the openness
factor.
b.
Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless):
Conscientiousness is a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully,
and aim for achievement. Conscientiousness also refers to planning,
organization, and dependability. High conscientiousness is often perceived as
stubbornness and obsession. Low conscientiousness is associated with
flexibility and spontaneity, but can also appear as sloppiness and lack of
reliability.
c.
Extraversion: (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved):
Extraversion describes energy, positive emotions,
assertiveness, sociability, talkativeness, and the tendency to seek stimulation
in the company of others. High extraversion is often perceived as
attentionseeking, and domineering. Low extraversion causes a reserved,
reflective personality, which can be perceived as aloof or self-absorbed.
d.
Agreeableness: (friendly/compassionate vs. analytical/detached):
Agreeableness is
a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and
antagonistic towards others. It is also a measure of one's trusting and helpful
nature, and whether a person is generally well-tempered or not. High
agreeableness is often seen as naive or submissive. Low agreeableness
personalities are often competitive or challenging people, which can be seen as
argumentative or untrustworthy.
e.
Neuroticism: (sensitive/nervous vs. Secure/confident).
Neuroticism is a tendency to experience unpleasant
emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and vulnerability.
Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability and impulse
control and is sometimes referred to by its low pole, "emotional
stability". A high need for stability manifests as a stable and calm
personality, but can be seen as uninspiring and unconcerned. A low need for
stability causes a reactive and excitable personality, often very dynamic
individuals, but they can be perceived as unstable or insecure
PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT:
ü Personality
development includes activities that improve awareness and identity, develop
talentsv
and potential, build human capital and facilitate employability, enhance
quality of life and contribute to the realization of dreams and
aspirations.
ü When
personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to
the methods,v
programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems that support human
development at the individual level in organizations.
ü Personality
development includes activities that develop talents, improve awareness,
enhancesv
potential and looks to improve the quality of life. It involves formal and
informal activities that put people in the role of leaders, guides, teachers,
and managers for helping them realize their full potential.
ü Hence,
it can be concluded that the process of improving or transforming the
personality is calledv personality development
IMPORTANCE
OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:
To better appreciate its importance, some of the key
benefits of developing your personality include the following:
a.
Confidence:
Personality
development gives more confidence to people. When you know you are
appropriately attired and groomed, this makes you less anxious when meeting a
person. Knowing the right things to say and how to conduct yourself will
increase your confidence
b.
Credibility:
Personality development
makes people more credible. Despite the saying that you don’t judge a book by
its cover, people do tend to judge people by their clothing and how it is worn.
This does not mean buying expensive clothes. We all know people who look shabby
in expensive clothes. There are also people who look great even if their attire
is inexpensive. Because of this, you must know what to wear and you must be
aware of other aspects of enhancing your physical features
c.
Interaction:
Personality
development encourages people to interact with others. Studies have
consistently shown that people communicate more openly with people they are
comfortable with. If your hygiene and social graces are unrefined, then expect
to have a much harder time connecting with people.
d. Leading
and Motivating:
Personality development enhances the capacity
to lead and motivate. A person with a winning personality will be able to
motivate better. People are less likely to get bored, and our ideas will have
more credibility. We can lead better if we project an aura of confidence and
credibility.
e. Curiosity:
A single wrong word can destroy a business relationship. Knowing the right
things to say shows both respect and intellectual sophistication. This is
especially the case if you are dealing with foreigners or if you conduct
business outside the country. The right thing to do in our country could be
horrible blunders in a different culture. These are the soft skills that may
break or make a deal.
f. Communication
skills: It improves your communication skills. People are more
receptive to what you say if they are impressed with your personality. Verbal
communication skills are also part of personality development; improving your
speech will strengthen the impact of your message.
Gordon
Allport’s Trait Theory
Allport considered the structure of personality into three parts, viz.,
(i) definition of personality,
(ii) personality traits, and
(iii) proprium.
According to Allport,
personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.
Allport, (1938). This definition has put forward many aspects and let us look at these aspects.
i) Psychophysical Systems
Personality is a system that has both psychological and physical aspects, which interact between themselves. The interacting factors include at the physiological level the endocrine system and the various glands in the system. As for the interacting factors in the psychological aspects these include, traits, emotions, intellect, temperament, character and motives. All these interact with the physiological aspects and contribute to the personality development and behaviour.
ii) Dynamic Organisation
Different elements of psychological system are independent but function in an interlocking manner with physiological and other systems and amongst themselves and are subject to change. However this change can take place in a gradual manner over a long period of time.
iii) Unique
Adjustment to Environment
Every individual is
characterised by a dynamic organisation of psychological traits that makes his
adjustment. The reason for this is that experiences of every person are unique
and therefore their reaction to the environment is also unique. It is well
known that the identical twins though are from the same fertilized egg, do show
considerable variations in their behaviour because of such unique aspects
within them.
Traits or Dispositions
According to Allport traits constitute the basic unit of individual’s personality. He defined traits as the predisposition to respond and react in the same or similar manner to stimuli in the environment.
According to him, there are two types of traits
(i) Common traits
(ii) Personal traits or dispositions.
Some of the important characteristics of traits are as given below:
ü Traits are not theoretical structures or constructs but are real and found within the individual.
ü Traits guide and direct behaviour and enable the individual to behave in a particular manner.
ü Traits are verified empirically.
ü Different traits are not absolutely independent of each other but have overlapping functions,
ü Stable
traits can also change over time
i) Common traits
there are certain behaviours that are commonly obtained as part of that culture and everyone in that culture recognises the same and even can label them. As for instance, greeting with a hand shake by the Europeans and greeting with a namaste by Indians.
You can also obtain common behaviours in terms of eating, marriage ceremonies and many rituals that they follow. Common traits can be considered abstractions which reflect social values and social mores.
These traits originate from social pressure on members to behave in a particular manner. Allport did not attach much importance to common traits as they are only surface manifestations. In our culture, we commonly differentiate between introverts and extraverts or modern and traditional behaviours.
ii) Personal traits or dispositions
Allport was of the view that personal disposition is something unique to the individual and this disposition makes him behave consistently in the same way in a number of situations that are similar.
He said that it is a generalised neuropsychic structure that is unique to the individual concerned and this makes for the difference in the behaviours of many individuals even though they may face the same situation.
For example, in a TV programme when a sad scene is shown one person cries, another turns the other way from the TV not wanting to see the scene, and the third criticizes the scene as most unreasonable and unrealistic. These three different reactions are typically due to the personal disposition of the three different individuals.
In his own words, Allport defined this personal disposition as “a generalized neuropsychic structure, unique to the individual, with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent or equivalent forms of adaptive and stylistic behaviour.” (Allport, 1938)
Let us now see what are the important features of the above definition of personal disposition:
1) A personal disposition produces equivalences in function and meaning between various perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and actions that are not necessarily equivalent in the natural world, or in anyone else’s mind. Personal dispositions have also been termed as morphological traits.
2) Personal dispositions guide and motivate a person’s specific acts of adjustment.
3) Personal dispositions are important as they reflect the structure and organisation of personality.
Allport believes that traits are essentially unique to each individual, as for example, one person’s “fear of speaking in public for instance may not be the same for two different individuals, as mentioned above.
If one has to understand the person and his behaviour, it is important to study the individual in detail and in depth. This can be done by interviewing the person, or observing the person or analysing his speeches and writings to get a clear view of what is making the person afraid to speak in public. This method was termed as the idiographic method by Allport. Also Allport categorized the personal dispositions into three groups, viz.,
1- cardinal traits
2- central traits and
3-
secondary traits
- Cardinal traits:
Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare, and dominate, usually
developing later in life. They tend to define a person to such an extent
that their names become synonymous with their personality. Examples of
this include the following descriptive terms: Machiavellian, narcissistic,
Don Juan, and Christ-like.
- Central traits: These general
characteristics form basic personality foundations. While central traits
are not as dominating as cardinal traits, they describe the major
characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as
"intelligent," "honest," "shy," and
"anxious" are considered central traits.
- Secondary traits: Secondary traits
are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences. They often appear only
in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some examples
include public speaking anxiety, or impatience while waiting in line.
Merits
:-
ü Allport
developed his personality theory in academic settings instead of psychoanalytic
settings. For this reason this theory gained much importance and recognition
among academic psychologists.
ü According
to Allport present and future are more important in understating personality
than past of an individual.
ü Motivations
and behaviour of an individual can be better understood by present and future.
ü This
characteristic of Alllport’s theory helps understand the structure of
personality more scientifically. Allport’s idiographic approach to personality
research is quite praise worthy as it aids understanding and detailed analysis
of personality. Allport made an important contribution to the field of
psychology through his explaination of personality in terms of traits.
Raymond Cattell analyzed
Allport's list and whittled it down to 171 characteristics, mostly by
eliminating terms that were redundant or uncommon. He then used a statistical
technique known as factor analysis to identify traits that are related to one
another. With this method, he was able to whittle his list to 16 key
personality factors.
According to Cattell, there is a continuum of personality traits. In
other words, each person contains all of these 16 traits to a certain degree,
but they might be high in some traits and low in others.
Cattell has used the concept of Factor analysis while identifying the various traits of personality. His theory has used factor analysis as an empirical tool while identifying theoretical concepts of traits.
The essential ideas of factor analysis were
introduced by Spearman who is known for his work with mental abilities.
He defined that any two tests, which are
related, identify two factors. One is a general factor and other is a specific
factor.
General factor is common to both tests while
specific factor is unique to each test.
By examining patterns of covariation, factor
analysis allows us to take large number of data based upon different measures
to be reduced to certain set of clusters or factors
v The steps used in carrying out factor analysis are-
ü Collecting measures from a large number of subjects on each of a number of variables
ü Intercorrelating all variables
ü Extracting factors from the correlation matrix
ü Determining the factor loadings of the item measures on the factors
ü Interpreting and naming the factors
Cattell’s theory identifies the basic traits of
personality with the help of factor analysis.
The nature of Personality:
A structure of traits - Cattell (1950) has defined “Personality is
that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.
The goal of psychological research in personality is thus to establish laws
about what different people will do in all kinds of social and general
environmental situations …. Personality is… concerned with all the behavior of
the individual, both overt and under the skin.”
Traits
ü For
Cattell, trait is a “mental structure”, an inference that is made from observed
behavior to account for regularity or consistency in this behavior.
Surface traits represents cluster of
manifest variables, which are together while source traits are underlying
variables that enter into the determination of multiple surface manifestations.
Source traits are identified with the
help of factor analysis only and permits the investigator to estimate the
factors that are basis of the surface behavior.
According to Cattell “Source traits are
more important than surface traits”.
Surface traits are identified by the
interaction of source traits and are less stable than factors. - After the
factor analysis, Cattell found out 16 source traits that contribute to the
underlying nature of personality. This is identified as 16 PF (Sixteen
Personality Factor Questionnaire) and is used in research work of identification
of personality of the person.
Abstractedness: Imaginative
versus practical
Apprehension: Worried versus
confident
Dominance: Forceful versus
submissive
Emotional stability: Calm versus
high-strung
Liveliness: Spontaneous
versus restrained
Openness to change: Flexible versus
attached to the familiar
Perfectionism: Controlled
versus undisciplined
Privateness: Discreet versus
open
Reasoning: Abstract versus
concrete
Rule-consciousness: Conforming
versus non-conforming
Self-reliance: Self-sufficient
versus dependent
Sensitivity: Tender-hearted
versus tough-minded
Social boldness: Uninhibited
versus shy
Tension: Inpatient versus
relaxed
Vigilance: Suspicious
versus trusting
Warmth: Outgoing versus
reserved
Constitutional
vs Environmental-mold traits
Constitutional
traits derive from the biological and physiological
conditions of the person.
Environmental- mold
traits are determined by the influences of physical and social environment.
Ability,
Temperament and Dynamic Traits
Source traits can be further classified
in terms of modality (through which they are expressed)
ü Ability
trait determine the person’s skill in pursuing a desired goal.
ü Temperament
traits may be concerned largely with constitutional aspects of response such as
speed, energy or emotional reactivity.
ü Dynamic
traits referred to the motivational element of human behavior
Dynamic
Traits –
They are of
three kinds: attitudes, ergs and sentiments.
v Attitude
are dynamic surface traits which are specification manifestations or
combinations of underlying motives. Five attitude components are id, ego
strength, superego, physiological component and conflict.
v Ergs
include biologically based drives. Cattell has talked about 10 ergs: hunger,
sex, gregariousness, parental protectiveness, curiosity, escape (fear),
pugnacity, acquisitiveness, self
v assertion
and narcissistic sex.
v Sentiments
includes social objects and they are acquired through learning which serve as
“subgoals on the way to the final ergic goals”.
Dynamic
Lattice
v They
are an interrelated pattern of subsidization.
v In
general attitudes are subsidiary to sentiments and sentiments are subsidiary to
ergs - These various relationships are known as dynamic lattice.
v Self
seems to be the most important of one of the sentiments.
v Cattell
finds that in any event sentiment focused around the self that plays a crucial
role in the integration of personality.
FREUD
THEORY:
Freud theorized
that personality contains three structures—the id, ego, and superego—and that
the mind is like an iceberg, the unconscious making up 90% while the conscious
(like the tip of the iceberg floating above water) makes only 10% of the mind.
Freud suggested an analogy about the mind.
He said that the mind is like an iceberg in the
ocean, floating 10% above the water and 90% below. The unconscious, Freud
proposed, makes up the vast majority of our mind. In Freud’s view, only about
10% of our behaviours are caused by conscious awareness—about 90% are produced
by unconscious factors.
According to psychoanalytic theory, most of what
controls our behaviours, thoughts, and feelings is unknown to our aware minds.
Normally, the unconscious guides us.
Freud said that the mind could be
divided into three abstract categories. These are the id, the ego, and the
superego.
1. The id :
Latin for the term “it,” this division of the mind includes our basic
instincts, inborn dispositions, and animalistic urges. Freud said that the id
is totally unconscious, that we are unaware of its workings. The id is not
rational; it imagines, dreams, and invents things to get us what we want. Freud
said that the id operates according to the pleasure principle—it aims toward
pleasurable things and away from painful things. The id aims to satisfy our
biological urges and drives. It includes feelings of hunger, thirst, sex, and
other natural body desires aimed at deriving pleasure.
It consists all primitive,
innate urges like bodily needs, sexual desire and aggressive impulses.
Animal side of the man
Seated in unconscious mind
All instinctive energy of the
individual
Present at birth
‘I must get what I wants, when
it wants’.
Selfish and unethical
Non-reality
Follow no rules and consider
only satisfaction of its own needs and drives.
It operates pleasure seeking
principle.
It has no value, no rules does
not recognize right or wrong.
2. The ego:
Greek and Latin for “I,” this personality
structure begins developing in childhood and can be interpreted as the “self.”
The ego is partly conscious and partly unconscious. The ego operates according
to the reality principle; that is, it attempts to help the id get what it wants
by judging the difference between real and imaginary. If a person is hungry,
the id might begin to imagine food and even dream about food. (The id is not
rational.) The ego, however, will try to determine how to get some real food.
The ego helps a person satisfy needs through reality.
ü Reality principle
ü It act intelligently
ü Police force in the man
ü Keep the balance between the
demand of id and superego.
ü Seated in subconscious mind
3. The
superego:
This term means “above the ego,” and includes
the moral ideas that a person learns within the family and society. The
superego gives people feelings of pride when they do something correct (the ego
ideal) and feelings of guilt when they do something they consider to be morally
wrong (the conscience). The superego, like the ego, is partly conscious and
partly unconscious. The superego is a child’s moral barometer, and it creates
feelings of pride and guilt according to the beliefs that have been learned within
the family and the culture.
Is the third system of the personality
Ethical and moral aspects of the psyche
It develop at the age of 5
Seated in unconscious mind
It is idealistic and does not care for realities.
Idealistic in nature
Perfection in its good rather than the pleasure is its goal.
It develop out of the ego’s experience with social reality.
Super ego represent the sense of right and wrong, good or bad for
the society.
v
According to Freud, the human mind has three main divisions
namely; Conscious, Subconscious and Unconscious.
· He compared human mind, just like a
iceberg
Conscious mind
ü Upper layer of the mind
ü We are aware at a given moment.
ü Idea, thought, and image
Subconscious mind
ü Just beneath the conscious mind
ü Individual not fully aware but
can be recalled easily.
ü Contain memory and stored
knowledge
Unconscious mind
ü Most important part of the mind
ü Deeper layer of the mind
ü Repressed wishes, fear, selfish
needs, un acceptable sexual desires, immoral urges and shameful experience
ü Individual not able to recall
these.
ü Mental ill and abnormal
behaviour are closely related to this part.
Five psychosexual
stages
Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place
during five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency,
and genital stages. During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in
different ways and through different parts of the body.
These are
called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido
(roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the
body. As a person grows physically certain areas of their body become important
as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both.
v
Freud (1905) believed
that life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all
tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure
came from its discharge.
v
In describing human
personality development as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what
develops is the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is discharged as we mature
biologically. (NB Freud used the term 'sexual' in a very general way to mean
all pleasurable actions and thoughts).
v
Freud stressed that
the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality.
The id must be controlled in
order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated
wishes and social norms.
v
The ego and superego develop in
order to exercise this control and direct the need for gratification into
socially acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of the
body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage
psychosexual.
Oral Stage (Birth
to 1 year)
In the first stage of psychosexual
development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. During the oral stages,
the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth
to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in
life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could
lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all
around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb
suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly
when under stress.
Anal Stage (1
to 3 years)
During
the anal stage of psychosexual development the libido becomes focused on the
anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is
now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes
can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their
ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of
conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose
restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this
first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship
with all forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can
lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is
obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be
stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got
from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's then insisting
that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds. The
anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime
during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is
the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving things
away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive
personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
Phallic Stage (3
to 6 years)
ü
The phallic stage is
the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of three to six
years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the
erogenous zone.
ü
The child becomes
aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between
erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called
the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra
complex (in girls).
ü
This is resolved
through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.
Oedipus
Complex
The most important
aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This
is one of Freud's most controversial ideas and one that many people reject
outright.
The name of the
Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills
his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out
and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for
both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the
Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops
sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his
mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy
thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would
take away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy
loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration
anxiety.
The little boy then
sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine
dad-type behaviors. This is called identification,
and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means
internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of another
person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender
role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.
Freud (1909) offered
the Little Hans case study
as evidence of the Oedipus complex.
Electra Complex
ü
For girls, the Oedipus
or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires
the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to
the development of penis envy and the wish to be a
boy.
ü
The girl resolves this
by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis
with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated
state,' and this creates great tension.
ü
The girl then represses her
feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the
female gender role.
Latency Stage (6
years to puberty)
The latency stage is
the forth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the period of six years
to puberty. During this stage the libido is dormant and no further psychosexual
development takes place (latent means hidden).
Freud thought that most sexual
impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated towards
school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is
channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play
becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
Genital Stage (puberty
to adult)
The genital stage is the last stage
of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development, and begins in
puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the
successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship
with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to
heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic
stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the
sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation
and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may
develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage
may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral
sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
Critical
Evaluation
Is Freudian psychology
supported by evidence? Freud's theory is good at explaining but not at
predicting behavior (which is one of the goals of science).
For this reason, Freud's theory
is unfalsifiable - it can
neither be proved true or refuted. For example, the libido is difficult to test
and measure objectively. Overall, Freud's theory is highly unscientific.
Freud may also have shown research
bias in his interpretations - he may have only paid attention to information
which supported his theories, and ignored information and other explanations
that did not fit them.
However, Fisher & Greenberg
(1996) argue that Freud’s theory should be evaluated in terms of specific
hypotheses rather than as a whole. They concluded that there is evidence to
support Freud’s concepts of oral and anal personalities
B.
Projective Techniques:
• Projective techniques were developed to assess
unconscious motives and feelings.
• These
techniques are based on the assumption that a less structured or unstructured
stimulus or situation will allow the individual to project her/his feelings,
desires and needs on to that situation. These projections are interpreted by
experts.
• Projective techniques are different from the
psychometric tests in many ways. They cannot be scored in any objective manner.
They generally require qualitative analyses for which a rigorous training is
needed.
Some of the well known projective techniques are:
a)
The
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Herman Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist,
was the first to suggest (1911) the use of inkblot responses as a diagnostic
instrument
In 1921 he published his book on the
test, Psychodiagnostik (and soon thereafter died, age 38) • The stimuli were
generated by dropping ink onto a card and folding it
They are not, however, random: the ten
cards in the current test were hand-selected out of thousands that Rorschach
generated
Ten blots – 5 black/white, 2 red/gray
(II & III) and 3 color (VIII – X)
Thought to tap into the deep layers of
personality and bring out what is not conscious to the test taker
• Example of the inkblot
b) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
• Construct a story about what you see on the
following picture
• Describe:
ü
what
led up to the scene
ü what is
happening
ü what the
characters in the story might think or feel
ü how
the story will end
30 grayscale pictures + one blank
for elicitation of stories – each contain a dramatic event or critical
situation
o
Most subjects see 10-12 cards, over two
sessions
o
Based on Murray's (1938) theory of 28
social needs (sex, affiliation, dominance, achievement, attitudes etc.)
o
People would project into their story
their needs
o
Attention is paid to the protagonist in
each story and his/her environmental stressors
o
Many variations on this 'story-telling'
test exist
b)
Rosenzweig’s
Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study)
•
Shown a picture of a frustrating scene
•
3 forms: child, adolescent, adult (24 cartoons each)
•
Checks:
§ direction
of aggression
§ type
of aggression
v need-persistance
c)
Sentence
Completion Test
• Makes use
of number of incomplete sentences
• Starting part of the sentence is presented and the
subject has to provide has to provide an ending
• The ending
reflects their attitudes, motivation and conflicts
• Example. My
father .
d)
Draw-a-Person
Test
• Analyzes the subject’s drawings for signs of
mental imbalance.
• Drawing assessed for self-esteem,
body image and interpersonal relationships
Prepared BY:Ashish Singh
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