Learning theory (unit --03)

B.Ed. first year

UNIT-3 

Concept of Learning and learning theory

Introduction :-

                       Man is a learning creature, and learning process begins not only since his birth but also in the womb of his mother. In Mahabharata brave Abhimanyu obtained the knowledge, of breaking the ring shaped formation of troops, in the womb of his mother. This is the direct instance of learning. Learning is a life long process. Man learns throughout his whole life. In the beginning, infant is helpless and dependent on others, but slowly he tries to adjust himself according to the atmosphere. In this adjustment, he tries to take the advantages by the experiences of the process, which is called learning by the Psychologists. Learning is an important subject in the study of Educational Psychology. First the word ‘Know’ was used for learning.

Nature of Learning :-

Learning is an extensive word. Learning depends on the inborn responses. Being inspired by the inborn instinct, a man does whatever activities there are for the adjustment of his situation. 

                                                                  According to the Psychologists- Learning is a mental process. A mental process is expressed by the behavior. A man is changed and refined on the basis of the experiences in his behavior. Two factors are included in the process of learning—maturity and ability to take the advantage from the earlier experiences. 

                          For example, if a burning stove is kept in front of a baby, he touches it because of his curiosity, as soon as he touches it, his hand burns; he draws away his hand rapidly. Then he does not go by the side of it any time, because he has learnt by his experience that fire will burn him. Thus, Learning is the progressive change in the behavior by the earlier experiences. 

                                                          On the basis of this, we can say that learning is an education. Learning and Education, the both indicate the same process. Both activities go on forever and everywhere in life. Child, growing towards the maturity, taking the advantage of his experiences, does whatever proper responses, that is called learning. As Blair Jones and Simpson have said- ‘’any change of behavior which is a result of experience and which causes people to face later situation differently may be called learning.’’ It is necessary to study the given defi nitions by the Psychologists to clear the meaning and nature of learning

Definition of Learning:-

(1) According to Morgan and Gilliland—‘’Learning is the behavior of the organism as a result of experience which is retained for at least a certain period of time.’’ 

(2) Gates and Others—‘’Learning is the modification of behavior through experience and training.’’ 

(3) Woodworth—“the process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the process of learning.’’

 (4) Skinner—“Learning is process of progressive behavior adaption.’’ 

(5) Crown bank—“Learning is shown by a change in the behavior as a result of experience.’’ 

(6) Crow & Crow—“Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.’’ 

(7) Thorndike—‘’Learning is selecting the appropriate responses and connecting it with the stimulus.’’ 

(8) Kuppuswami—‘’Learning is a process by which an organism, as a result of its interaction in a situation, acquires a new mode of behavior, which tends to persist and affect the general behavior pattern of the organism, to some degree.’’

                                                                                   In fact the collection of the above definitions have been done on the basis of this, which could make clear the opinion of learning from the multi angle point of view. In spite of being completely independent, the above definitions are complementary to each other. The following things of learning factor are explained with the combination of many definitions—

(1) There is change in the behavior by the process of learning as having been burnt in the fire, an infant Notes does not go close to fire. 

(2) Whatever changes happen in the behavior, keep on till sometime, as he does not forget it soon that there is a lot of pain, after having a burn from the fire. 

(3) The change in the behavior is based on the earlier experiences, if a child has burn from fire, then he works in such a fashion while working with fire that he does not get a burn again. 

(4) The change that happens in the behavior could be externally visible, invisible or partially visible. 

(5) There are permanent changes in the behavior or doing work in the learning related way. The changes happening in the behavior in the form of doing work, cannot include those changes, which are originated from the main instincts, maturity, addiction, and tiredness. 

(6) Learning is the refi nement of behavior. Once the changes take place in the behavior, that changed behavior can be improved in a new situation. 

(7) The learner obtains growth again and again in cognative, affective and conative fields by the learning, which helps him with the progressive change in his behavior.

Process of Learning :-

                                   The process of learning has been cleared with the help of above definitions. The process of learning moves on throughout the life consciously or unconsciously. Developing by individual learning process. Its basis is maturity. Inspiration is necessary in the process of learning. 

                According to Guthrie—“Ability to learn is to respond differently to situation because of the past experiences to a situation.” 

              According to the Peel—‘’Learning is a change, in a person which, happens according to the changes in his environment.’’ 

Peel has explained the process of learning in brief— 

(1) By learning, permanent and temporary, both types of changes come in a person. 

(2) Learning is different from the easy, natural activities of person as blinking the eye and to draw the hand etc. 

(3) Learning is possible by the social and biological adjustments or conscious purposes. 

(4) Learning can originate both types of behaviors as social, unsocial in a person.

 (5) Education can be faultless and faulty.

                             According to Woodworth—‘’Learning consists in doing something new provide the new activity is rein forced and reappears in latter activities.’’

Features of Learning Process:-

                                                                In the definitions of learning, Psychologists have given a specific type of nature to the process of learning. If the specific process of learning is analyzed, the following characteristics of learning process are highlighted: 

(1) Learning is universal—Learning is such a process, which happens in the living beings in all the times and all the places. Wherever there is a being, place and time, the process of learning will take place. Human being keeps on engaging in doing something every time.

(2) Learning is change—The change that happens in the behavior of child is learning. Learning is that process, by which the change will appear in the child. By the learning, the sequence of changes and rechanges move on, by which child becomes the outcome of the changes.

 (3) Learning is development—The development of child is possible by the process of learning. The contribution of learning in the whole development of child is so much important, that learning becomes the synonym of development. The Psychologists have considered that the personality of child is developed in form of progressive changes and refinement, which is possible by the process of learning. Learning is seen in the form of development. 

(4) Learning is adjustment—Child establishes adjustment with the society and the environment by the learning process. The process of adjustment is so close to the process of learning that we understand adjustment as learning. In fact Human being has to adjust with the environment to survive. So he has to do the process of learning for his survival. Gates and others have accepted learning as an adjustment. 

(5) Learning is Purposesive—It is necessary to have some purpose for learning. The goal of learning could be attained by purpose only. Purposiveness decides the aim of learning, and provides the direction to the responses. 

(6) Learning is continuous—Learning is neither limited to any age, or any period. Rather, it continues throughout the life.

 (7) Learning is creative—It is the tendency of human nature, to do some creative work. Thus, doing such work is learning, which he manifests in the form of thoughts and actions. Creativity encourages man, by initiative towards learning. 

(8) Learning is response to total situation—A person establishes adjustment with different kinds of situations after examining them on the basis of completeness. He continues to learn to do the right responses for the adjustment to the situation. So learning is a delivery of right responses to total situation of a person.

 (9) Learning is a relationship between stimuli and responses—To establish the right and desirable responses with any stimuli is learning. On the basis of this fact, Psychologists have delivered the word ‘relational’ in the study of learning.

(10) Learning is related with cognitive, affective and conative domains—whatever a man learns, its fi eld is cognitive, affective and co-native. And learning is related with cognitive, affective and co-native fi elds, he collects knowledge, feelings and collects skill to do activities. 

(11) Learning is Transferable—A person can use the same skills and solutions of the problem in the other similar problems, which he has learnt in any situation. Means, learning transfers. Thus, learning is transferable. 

(12) Learning is a process—From the psychological point of view learning is a process, which moves on in a living environment. This process is seen, in the fulfillment of the need, under the condition of stimuli- responses, in obtaining the goal, in obtaining the success in the adjustment, and in the stabilization of behavior and practical change. 

Factors of Influencing Learning:-

                                                            After studying the process of learning, it is also necessary to study the influencing factors of learning in the education, because man’s nature is changeable, and its study is complicated. And personality differences are found in the learning. Psychologists have studied such factors on the basis of their experiments, which generally affect the learning of all persons. There can be a progress in the process of learning, after getting proper knowledge of factors influencing learning. In these factors, inspiration, interest, meditation, intellect, health, the nature of subject and the different methods of learning are important. These factors can be studied in the both aspects as helpful and as an obstacle in the process of learning. Opposition of any factor is an obstacle in the process of learning. But it proves helpful to be appropriate and adapting to them. 

                                                          Describing the factors and conditions of learning, it is the statement of Psychologist Simpson- “Along with the other conditions of learning, some conditions are following- Proper health, good habits of living, being free of the physical faults, good habits of study, emotional balance, mental ability, act related maturity, desirable attitude and interest, better social adaptation, freedom from tradition and superstition.” 

On the basis of above opinions, the factors of influencing learning can be divided into four parts: (A) Physical factors, (B) Psychological factors, (C) Environmental factors, (D) Other factors.

(A) Physical Factors 

(1) Sense organs—Physical factors are very important in influencing the process of learning. First Physical factors, which are included in the process of learning, are sense organs. The fi ve types of sense organs are watching, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Representation is the basis of our whole knowledge.

(2) Physical and mental health— It is necessary to be physically and mentally healthy for learning. The children, who are physically and mentally fit, take interest in learning and soon learn. Unhealthy children do not take interest in learning and tire soon, consequently they learn subject less and lately. Because of tiredness there is trouble in the learning. Tiresome person cannot do the work properly in spite of having interest and inspiration. So it is necessary to pay attention on the physical and mental health. 

(3) Maturity—Learning is closely related to maturity. As soon as child grows, his physical and mental abilities also develop along. Thus, physical and mental maturity affects the process of learning. From this point of view, mature child does not face any difficulty in the learning, his energy and time do not go waste.

(B) Psychological Factors 

(1) Inspiration and Learning—Inspiration has an important place in the process of learning. In the process of learning the place, importance and the utility of inspiration has been described in a separate chapter. It is necessary to have a motivator in the learning. Motivator is an internal power, which forces a person for action. The work, which is done by internal inspiration, more zeal and creativity is seen in them. A teacher should have good understanding about the needs, interests and motivations of children. Need, motive and incentive are related to inspiration. If a teacher does not understand these factors, he can not get success in the process of inspiration. In order to get incentive, child is especially encouraged for learning. Need gives him inspiration for learning. Psychologists have proved this by doing experiments on the animals and men related to inspiration. Along with the inspiration of learning, encouragement also gets along. Then they learn quickly and easily. In the education of a child, he can be inspired by the appreciation, encouragement and prize. In the same way, by the proper punishment and criticism he does not repeat the bad conduct and behavior. In the education, reward and punishment, both one by one, help in the learning of good behavior and giving up bad behavior. 

(2) Interest and Aptitude—Learning is depended on the nature of a person. If a child takes interest in any subject then he feels easiness and joy in the learning. The first responsibility of a teacher is to develop an interest and aptitude in a child. When a child gets an opportunity due to his interest and aptitude, he exposes his whole personality, and learns that skillfully. It is necessary to make the arrangement of giving education by examining the interest and aptitude of the child in the schools, so that they could adjust themselves successfully in various situations. 

(3) Will to Learn—The will of the person has an important place in the learning. If a person has a will of learning, then he does learning in against conditions. The person who has not any desire of learning, he cannot be taught under any conditions. As a Psychologist has said, ‘’ A horse can be taken to the pond, but you cannot compel him to drink against his desire.’’ So it is a duty of a teacher after developing interest and aptitude in the children, to make their will power strong. 

(4) Intellect—Intellect and capability of learning are closely related. The distribution of intellect among the children is not equal. So the different children have different kind of capability of learning. Learning mostly depends upon the intellectual ability of learner. An intelligent child learns every subject quickly, while a dull child takes time in understanding and learning. Opinion, Imagination, rumination and decision power are related to intellect.

(C) Environmental Factors Environment—

                                                                         The progress of learning mostly depends on the congenial environment. The act of learning cannot be completed easily in the adverse situation. The psychological atmosphere of class affects the process of learning. Montessori has said, it is very necessary for a teacher to originate the psychological moment for the process of learning. The place of study should be full of fresh air and light, which makes mind and body healthy. Learning places, whether it may be school or home, should be peaceful. Attention can be gathered, only in the lonely and peaceful atmosphere. Intensive stimulus should be used in the class to attract the attention towards the subject, as helpful material and proper example etc. The atmosphere of the class should be easy, interesting and full of curiosity. Thus in the proper environment there is progress in the learning.

(D) Other Factors

 (1) Nature of subject matter—The learning of any subject depends upon the nature of subject matter. For example, in the textbook the lesson of interesting story is learnt easily and with interest than that of complicated and criticizing essay. In this relation teacher’ method of ‘simple to difficult of complex’ theory proves useful, Means while teaching easy things, to grow towards difficulty.

 (2) The Methods of Learning—In Learning progress especially depends on the methods of learning. The description of these methods has been done place to place. The methods of learning according to the child will be so interesting and appropriate, as much the learning will be easy. From this point of view, in the beginning classes, ‘playing method’ and ‘Learning by doing’ or ‘action method’ is used. In the higher studies ‘Community related explanation’ and other methods are used. 

(3) Practice—In learning, an important factor that helps in bringing progress, is practice. Practice affects learning very much. It has been said in the ‘Rules of Practice’. 

(4) Teacher and the learning Process—A teacher has in important place in the process of learning. In the dual process of learning, the conduct, thought, behavior, personality, knowledge and learning method of teacher has a direct effect on the student and the process of learning. Montessori, Frowail and other Psychologists have called teacher as the path guide, gardener and artist. A teacher can make the process of learning easy and fast for the students on the basis of his talent and various materials

(5) Knowledge of result—If learner keeps on getting the knowledge of his progress while learning then he gets the encouragement and inspiration for further learning. If he gets failure and mistakes, it is essential to have a knowledge of this, learner gets the inspiration of attempting and improving again and again. So a teacher should to give him knowledge of his progress, success and result.

                                 Besides the above important factors the following factors can be looked into from the additional educational learning point of view, on the basis of special division-

 (1) Factors belonging to the Learner—As a family is the first school of a child, but when a child enters in the school with the formalities, many curiosities originate in his mind, which he wants to calm and he has to adjust with the new environment. In such conditions, the process of learning is affected by many factors, as the child (who is the basis of learning process) desires of learning, the level of ambition, educational background, health, maturity, inspiration, the interest of learner, learning time, the period of learning, intellect and the learning processes etc. Being affected by these important factors he can go forward on the path of success learning anything easily. 

(2) Factors belonging to the teacher—There are many factors belonging to the teacher influencing the learning. For example, subject knowledge of the teacher, psychological knowledge, methods of learning, the knowledge of personality differences, proper behavior, child centered education, time table, extracurricular activities and discipline etc. these are the factors, which help teacher in teaching. In the absence of any one of these factors, learning can not be completed. 

(3) Factors belonging to the subject matter—Some factors for influencing the learning that belong to subject matter are following, as the nature of subject matter, figure, language, method, series, example presentation, seeing hearing material, the complete purpose of interesting subject matter, difficult levels of different subject and its structure. The process of Learning is very much affected by these factors. If few things is kept in mind in developing these factors, learning will be stable. 

(4) Factors related to management to learning—there are many factors influencing the learning and are related to management to learning. In order to maintain this system many methods shall be deployed, like part vs. whole method, sub-subject vs. focused learning, collected vs. distributed, organized vs. contextual method, and active vs. inactive method. 

(5) Environmental factors—Many factors of environment affect learning, As-heredity, knowledge of social heredity, the effect of environment, social and cultural environment, informal reason of education, development of personality, familiar and psychological environment, physical environment of class and all situations.

 (6) Group characteristics, internal process—Man is a social an, animal, the absence of it his existence is not considered. He develops much connectivity to the group and community, and the rules of that group, customs, limitations, and traditions affect him. It is necessary for a teacher to have knowledge of group psychology to make the process of learning more effective.

Importance of Learning for Teachers :

The proper knowledge of the above material related to learning is very important to complete the teaching successfully. A teacher can make teaching effective by using them. 

The importance of learning for a teacher can be expressed in the following way—

 (1) A teacher can use the knowledge of the principles of learning to bring desirable changes in the behavior of child. 

(2) A teacher requires the knowledge of the methods of teaching, method of learning and the alternative of learning skill to express skill in the teaching.

 (3)After choosing the rules and learning methods, a teacher can use them for the progress of each child according to the personality differences.

 (4) A teacher can understand the importance of motivation in the learning with learning knowledge, and can inspire the child for the learning by the proper motivation. 

(5) Education related knowledge informs the teacher with easily accessible and obstructive factor, so that, teacher can use the effective factors paying attention to the obstructive factors.

 (6) With the help of learning knowledge, a teacher can make learning easy and interesting by using the theory of evaluation and condition of learning. 

(7) Obtaining the knowledge of learning, a teacher can make valuable contribution and utilize the educational condition, and according to the needs, he can try an expedition in improving the condition of class. 

(8) A teacher can evaluate the significance of his teaching in context of changes happening in the student, or can decide the validity and invalidity of the learning methods on the basis of evaluation outcome of students.

Thorndike’s Stimulus- Response Bond Theory:-

1. Thorndike learning theory (S-R Theory)

• Thorndike Trial and Error Learning Theory

• Characteristics of Trial and Error Learning

• Thorndike's Experiment

• Thorndike's Laws of learning

• Limitations of Thorndike's Theory of learning

Edward L. Thorndike, in his book ‘Animal Intelligence’, in 1898, delivered famous connectionism. The meaning of connectionism in learning psychology is to make connection between stimulus and response. In the connectionism, connection is established between stimulus and response. So it is known by the name of stimulus response theory.

                                                                In this theory along with the inborn factors of a man, there is a connection between the internal and external stimulus response. In the learning psychology ‘Stimulus Response theory’ is an extensive theory whose researchers

                                     According to these psychologists, there is a stimulus behind each activity, which affects a man. And he does responses according to that. Thus, stimulus is related with response. The organizer of this opinion Thorndike has forced to establish connection between stimulus and response for the learning. On account of insisting this bond, Thorndike’s learning theory is called ‘stimulus- Response bond theory’

                                                 According to Thorndike, a bond is established between two or more experiences. There is a stimulus for the processing of some action, which causes response. Stimulus affects a man, according to that he responds. Thus, a peculiar stimulus is connected to response; means there is a bond between stimulus and response

Thorndike’s theory is basis of three factors—

 (1) Stimulus or S factor, which includes in the situation of environment. 

(2) Response or R Factor which exposes the activity of behavior. 

(3) Stimulus, Response and Bond factor, which establish connection between stimulus and response. Or it binds stimulus with response and the development of bond between stimulus and response is the important thing of the theory of Thorndike. 

According to the Thorndike— ‘’Learning, in the nervous system, is a matter of reinforcement and making connection between stimulus and response.’’

According to Thorndike connection is established between stimulus and response. Symbolically it is expressed by S→R. Thorndike has presented the rules of learning on the basis of S→R bonds. In his book ‘Educational Psychology’ he has written widely about this theory in the educational field.

Characteristics of Trial and Error Learning :-

(1) Bonding between stimulus and response is learning.

(2) The process of bond between stimulus and response is happened by trial and error. Learner tries and mistakes many times for learningthe right process, but in many trials depriving mistakes and doing errorless trial he learns the right process.

(3) By trial and response learner becomes expert in doingdefinite response for definite stimulus. For this he selects right response among other possible responses, so Thorndike’s this theory is also called ‘TheTheory of Selecting and Connectionism’.

According to Thorndike—

‘’Learning is the consequence of selecting the right responses and connecting them with stimulus.’’

(4) This process of learning is mechanistic, because the selection of right responses is possible afterremoving the mistakes.

(5) There is response according to stimulus, and according to that human behaviour is decided. Thus thistheory says that only stimulus decides and controls the behavior, and along with a peculiar stimulus isneeded for a peculiar response.

(6) Thorndike’s theory has given a scientific base to the learning processin the field of educationpsychology.

(7) This theory is a form of associate theory.

• Limitations of Stimulus-Response Bond Theory :-

stimulus response bond theory has many limitations, which can bedescribed in the following way-

(1) Stimulus and response have not been explained properly in this theory.

(2) The structure of personality has not been specially described in it; this is the reason why the followersof this theory have considered psychoanalysis theory useful in their opinions and researches.

(4) All the psychologists have called this theory atomic and fragment.

(5) In this theory, useless efforts are forced to learn any activities.

(6) Criticizing the effect and result of the rule, the Practitioner have said that the process of learning hasbeen incompletely explained in it.

(7) According to the followers of Gastalt, the connection happens itself between experiences and we find it in entirety, so there is no need for any kind of connection.

Following Elements (7-stage ) involve in S-R Theory Experiment-

1.Drive:- Cat was hunger & was intensified the sight of the food.

2-Goal- To get at the food by getting out of the Box.

3-Block- The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.

4- Random movements- the cat persistently tried to come out of the box without knowing how.

5-Chance success:- by chance, succeeded in opening the door.

6- Selection(of proper movement):- the learner selects the right responses after certain trials.

7-Fixation:- Here right responses are fixed . it is s stage of  errorless performance.

 Experiments-

                           Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box had one door, which could be opened by manipulating a latch of the door. A fish was placed outside the box. The cat being hungry had the motivation of eating fish outside the box. However, the obstacle was the latch on the door. The cat made random movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of behaviour biting at the box, scratching the box, walking around, pulling and jumping etc. to come out to get the food. Now in the course of her movements, the latch was manipulated accidently and the cat came out to get the food. Over a series of successive trials, the cat took shorter and shorter time, committed less number of errors, and was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt the art of opening the door. Thorndike concluded that it was only after many randomtrials that the cat was able to hit upon the solutions. He named it as Trial and Error Learning.

According to Thorndike, it was necessary to have two things for learning the method of coming out by cat

1. it being hungry of cat- It was necessary that cat would be motivated for learning so that she could do attempt 

2. To have a fish-so that she could take its food. 

                                                             Thorndike delivered his rule on the basis of this experiment, which explains the development in the learning of both animal and man, in stimulus-response bond structure.

Question:-Explain the primarily and secondary laws of learning describing by Thorndike

Law of learning:-

 Thorndike’s laws of learning are basis on the stimulus- response bond theory or connectionism. According to this law when there is a stimulus in front of a man, he is motivated for doing a peculiar type of response. He studied the bond of stimulus and response and created the primarily and secondary laws of learning

(A) Primary Laws of Learning—

• Law of Readiness

• Law of exercise

• Law of Effect

(B) Secondary Laws of Learning—

• Law of Multiple Responses

• Law of Mental set or Attitude

• Law of Prepotency of Elements

• Law of Response by Analogy

• Law of Associative Shifting

(A) Primary Laws of Learning—

(1) Law of Readiness :-This law is also called ‘Law of Motivation’. Accoding to this law when we are ready to learn, we learn more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than when we are not ready to learn.

                                          In order to give education to a child firstly a teacher should develop such conditions which originate interest and curiosity in a child and he will be prepared for learning. For this, a teacher can motivate a child for learning by many methods. Skillful teacher, asking questions related to lesson or earlier knowledge can originate interest in a child for the lesson by the new methods of learning. Teacher often says to the student to come after reading the lesson. Thus he gets mentally prepared for learning many things. And his preparations for learning help him in concentrating. Thus, Notes child learns things easily, and gets satisfaction in learning

                                  Thus, the Law of Readiness means mental preparation for action. It is not to force the child to learn if he is not ready. 

2- Law of Exercise:-(Law of Practice)-

Law of exercise says that under a situation, in order to determine a right response,

that response should be repeated again and again. Which learning process we repeat many times, we learn it easily. Learning can be made easy by exercise.

1. Law of use- “ When a modifiable connection is made between a stimulus and response, other things being equal, that connections strength increased if it it repeated a number of times”. This is called the 'law of frequency'.(we say practice makes perfect.)

2. Law of dis-use “ When a modifiable connection is  not made between a stimulus and response, over a length of time ,that connections strength ,other things equal, decreases.”.

Educational implications:

a) After learning anything, adequate practice or drill should be undertaken to ensure that learning becomes stable and effective.

b) Periodical review of learned material is necessary.

c) Mere drill or exercise is not enough' continuous feedback is also necessary.

d) Bad habits can be eliminated through disuse, leading to atrophy or forgetting

(3) Law of Effect—This law is also called the law of satisfaction or dissatisfaction or Law of pleasure and pain”.

                                                 Every activity has its effective tone .some activities end  in pleasure and other end in pain.theactivities which are associated with pleasure or satisfaction tend to be repeated again and again and  the learning become more effective. activities which are associated with pain, punishment or annoyance are not repeated  and their strength is decreased.

                 Thorndike defines this Law as fallows:-

“when a modifiable connection is made between a stimulus and a response and is followed up by satisfying stable of affairs, its strength increases; when followed by dissatisfying state of affairs, its strength decreases”

(B) Secondary Laws of Learning—

(1) Law of Multiple Responses:-

                                               According to Thorndike, when some stimulus provokes any creature he does many responses to get satisfaction, and there are multi responses before right response, out of which many responses are useless. But if responses are not multiple, learner could not learn right response.

               On the basis of this law of learning, a learner should be provided an opportunity by the improvement in his mistakes in place of an obstacle in the way of learning resulting in search of methods and different solution of learning, or he should be provided directions in taking decision towards any definite and effective solution, so that he could do less useless effort.

(2) Law of Mental set or Attitude:-

                                     Mental condition and attitude affect much in the learning. Favourable attitude comes. If a learner has lack of expected attitude and mental conditions toward the learning process, then he can’t do learning. 

However much effective teaching will be. According to Thorndike, how will a man react towards any stimulus is depended on his pre experiences, his thought, culture etc. before his adjustment with the society. 

                                      Often social tendency become more effective on reacting. So it is necessary to develop the curiosity and desirable condition of a child for the learning. So, according to this rule, it is necessary that a child should be prepared mentally before learning process.

(3) Law of Prepotency of Elements—

                                                            This law is also called the law of selective response. It means that learner does not responds towards all the factors in troublesome condition, but he has a potential in responding towards some selected factors. Towards whichever condition, learner has potential in responding, is called the elements of prepotency, which already exists in the learner. On the basis of these elements of prepotency, response happens. To recognize these elements in learning condition depends on the intellect of a learner. By the potency of recognizing these elements, it is possible to make learning analytical and conscious.

(4) Law of Response by Analogy—

                                                        Law of response by analogy mean responses done on the basisof similarity or analogy of two situations.

In it, the use of previous knowledge and earlier experience is done in the new learning condition. Here the theory of transference does work. When some knowledge or experience is assumed properly, or it is assimilated, then it can be easily transferred in any other learning conditions. So it is also called the law of assimilation.

There is a process of connecting knowledge and experience. A child should understand that whatever is being explained to him is a string of knowledge, to be obtained by him in the future. And he will feel as he knows very much related to new knowledge.

On the basis of this, after establishing relation between earlier knowledge and new knowledge, learner makes given knowledge his permanent part.

(5) Law of Associative Shifting—

Thorndike’s associative shifting law means that the place of responseof learner goes on change; it shifts in the form of formal and later conditions, which have relation?

During the time of providing new knowledge to learner, if the same conditions are originated which were presented in the time of giving earlier knowledge, then learner will do the same response. To establish this kind of associative affinity between earlier and new knowledge, is called associative shifting. So as far as it can be, associative conditions should be developed before learning, so that learner could shift the place of knowledge.

Educational Utility of Trial and Error learning method—

The important utility of trial and error learning method is following—

(1) This method is like an improvement method. By this method child takes the benefit of the experience obtained by his earlier errors.

(2) After doing continuous effort, the characteristics of patience and hard work develop in the children.

(3) In this method a child repeats the activities which he likes, these activities as a stimuli inspire him in the process of learning. He learns by the selecting successful process, so some psychologists have said this method ‘Learning by selection of the successful variation.

(4) This method is depended on the practice. So learnt work gets permanent. So a teacher should encourage the student, if student gets failure in any activity. This method is very useful for serious subjects, as- math, science, grammar etc. The solution of the problems of math, the opportunity of doing by the trial and error should be provided. A child is more benefited by this method. The success after doing many trials is permanent.

(5) A child knows the goal but not get the idea of obtaining the goal, by this method, and then he does efforts himself, which develop in him the characteristics of self confidence and self-dependence.

                            These characteristics help him in developing the capability of fi nding the solutions of the problems and situations coming in the future, whose goals will be known to him but not the way of obtaining them.

(6) This method is not useful for the younger children.

(7) This method is specially not useful for the dull minded children.

Classical conditioning Theory:-(Pavlov theory)

Introduction 

                       I. P. Pavlov delivered the Conditioned reflex theory (1849–1936). He was the native of Russia and a famous scientist. He was provided Nobel Prize in 1904 for doing the work on the digestion process.

                     In fact he was studying the role of the flow of saliva in the digestion of dogs, at that time, he noticed that there is growth in the flow of saliva of dog, when the food comes and the sound of the feet of someone taking food is heard. After observing this incident, he delivered learning related theory. Thus he became a psychologist in the age of fifty. 

 He published two books are: 

• Conditioned Reflex and

• Lectures on Conditioned Reflex.

This theory is known by the name of Connected Reflex, ConnectedVariation, and Conditioned Response. But on the basis of the experiment, done by Pavlov on thedog, this theory has been given the name of ‘Classical Conditioned Theory’. On the basis of nature

of this theory it has also been given the name of ‘Response Bond Theory’.

Pavlov’s Classical Experiment—

                                                         Pavlov did his experiment on a dog in a laboratory. He added a tube in the grand salivation after doing surgery which fell in a utensil, which can be helped in the observation of salivation. During this experiment, food was given to a dog on a certain time everyday. Seeing the food the salivation of dog began to excrete. The presentation of food was a natural stimulus and the process of salivation by this stimulation was a natural response. Pavlov rang the bell in the second time, which was unnatural stimulus, and the alertness of dog and twisting the ears with this stimulation was an unnatural response. 

                       After this Pavlov rang the bell along with the presenting the food, means natural or unnatural stimulus presented together, as a response the dog salivated. This was the only response of both stimuli. This process was repeated in the laboratory many times, by which food and bell means, natural or unnatural stimulus connected reflexes were conditioned. Now in the third round Pavlov only rang the bell, means only unnatural stimulus, but did not present food even then dog salivated. Here it is an important thing that food as a stimulus substituted bell as a stimulus. This is the learning of substitution. Which Pavlov named conditioned reflex. Now a days  psychologists named the Pavlov conditioned Reflex Theory Classical theory

Mechanism of Classical Conditioning:- Complete in 3 steps i.e.,

Step:-1    Food                                       Saliva

                 UCS                                         UCR

Step:-2    Bell + Food                            Saliva

                  Cs + UCS                              UCR

Step:-3     Bell                                        Saliva

                  Cs                                           CR

Higher Order Conditioning—

                                            Pavlov found on extending his experiment that other unnatural stimulus also does the work of reinforcement after presenting it along with the unnatural stimulus. Awakening natural response with the unnatural stimulus is higher natural response. Pavlov presented unnatural stimulus as the rays of light when the dog started salivating process on hearing the bell in this experiment. It was done many times, after some times it was noticed that dog salivated to see the rays of light (other unnatural stimulus). In this experiment the process of salivating to see the rays of light is higher order conditioning, because in the beginning, other unnatural (the rays of light) stimulus was not presented along with the reinforced or natural stimulus.

Besides higher order conditioning, Pavlov and his followers did many experiments on the dog, and presented many important opinion on the basis of those conclusions, which extended to the conditioning learning theory. 

These opinions are following-

Temporal Relationship between Conditioned Stimulus and Conditioning Stimulus—

It has beenfound in the experiments done on the dogs, that the connection between CS and UCS is establishedwhen there is a definite close timed relationship between them. In the experiment of Pavlov, conditionedlearning was seen with the closeness of five seconds between CS and UCS. There are three situations oftime closeness—

• Forward conditioning: Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning the onset of the conditioned stimulus (CS) precedes the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (US). Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.

• Delay conditioning: In delay, conditioning the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the Unconditioned stimulus (US).

• Trace conditioning: During trace conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and US do not overlap. Instead, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented, a period is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented. The stimulus-free period is called the trace interval. It may also be called the conditioning interval.

• Simultaneous conditioning: During simultaneous conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are presented and terminated at the same time.

C.S. ............................................Food .......................................

U.C.S. ..........................................Bell .......................................

• Backward conditioning: Backward conditioning occurs when a conditional stimulus (CS) immediately follows an unconditional stimulus (US). Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditional stimulus (CS) precedes the unconditional stimulus (US),the conditional response (CR) tends to be inhibitory. This is because the conditional stimulus (CS) serves as a signal that the unconditional stimulus (US) has ended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditional stimulus (US).

• Temporal conditioning: The unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon correct timing of the interval between unconditioned stimulus (US) presentations. The background, or context, can serve as the conditioned stimulus (CS) in this example.

• Unpaired conditioning: The conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are not presented together. Usually they are presented as independent trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to study non-associative behavioural responses, such as sensitization.

Important Terminology

1-Extinction—

                           Pavlov stopped the presentation of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli on the basis of time closeness in his further experiments, means only the bell was rung but food was not presented consequently, dog stopped the salivation process on sound of the bell. This was called extinction.

                                                                              It was found after evaluating each effort of dog in the salivation process on the sound of bell that the quantity of salivation was continuously less. Hence extinction finishes the conditioning process. And it makes a weak the association of the sound of the bell and salivation as conditioning reinforces that association.

2-Spontaneous Recovery—

It is seen in the observation of extinction related experiments that conditioning never finishes completely; rather the capability to counter is developed in the conditioning process.

According to Morgan and King—

‘’Extinction is a process of learning to inhibit the response acquiredin conditioning.’’

If the same conditioned and conditioning stimuli are presented many times, soon on the basis of time closeness, conditioning is established after establishing the relationship between both stimuli as disappearing or forgetting something, the process of remembering it after it happens again.

 For example when food and bell are not presented altogether, it is seen the salivation of dog is stopped on the sound of bell. This process is extinction. But after presenting the food and bell sound in the time closeness again, the dog starts the salivation upon hearing the sound of the bell- This is Spontaneous Recovery.

Inhibition—

Inhibition is that process in the function of establishing conditioning, in which any other stimulus originates inhibition in the response. 

• It can be caused by two reasons—

(a) Internal Reason—in which any internal inhibition element does work, and 

(b) External Reason—in which any external inhibition element of environment does work.

Generalization—

                              Generalization is that process in which stimulus related to conditioning response seems same. For example, if a dog has learnt salivation on the bell sound, he salivates on the sound of metronome, because both have the same sound.

Reinforcement—

                              The difference between conditioning process and extinction process is only presenting the conditioning stimulus (food). It is clear from these differences that association is going on reinforced or weak. It is necessary to have reinforcement for making conditioning response.

Learning by Conditioned Reflex—

                                                              Learning by conditioned reflex can be understood by the classical experiments of Pavlov, which has been already described in the last chapters. This is the beginning and appropriate example of learning by conditioned reflex, which should be presented for the better understanding of the students.

Evaluation of the Conditioned Refl ex Theory—

                             Conditioned response method is depended on the above theory of learning, which is not beyond of criticism, some psychologists do not consider it today in this way. The following opinions are presented in this connection-

(1) It is easy to learn only animal by connectionism. A man learns less through this process along with the age growth. It does not play any important role in learning difficult subjects.

(2) Connectionism or conditioning is only possible in special situations. These situations are unnatural, while learning is possible in natural conditions.

(3) There is no stability in learning in this method.

(4) This method forced very much for practice and a different type of greed. The process of learning becomes mechanical after presenting unnatural stimulus many times, which does not have any newness.

• Implications of Pavlov’s Theory to Classroom Situations :-

1. Classical Conditioning is used in language learning by associating words with pictures or meaning

2. It can be used to develop favourable attitude towards learning, teachers, subjects and the school

3. Developing good habits in children such as cleanliness respect for elders punctuality etc through the use of conditioning

4. Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fear, through the use of deconditioning process.

4-. The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a task effectively before embarking on another one. This means that a student needs to be able to respond to a particular stimulus (information) before he/she can be associated with a new one.

5. Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They should be versatile with various strategies that can enhance effective participation of the students in the teaching learning activities.

6. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning. A negative or positive response comes through the stimulus being paired with. For example, providing the necessary school material for primary school pupils will develop good feelings about school and learning in them, while, punishment will discourage them from attending the school.

Gestalt Theory :-

 I. Introduction

                         Max Wertheimer is the father of Gestalt Theory. Later on, Wertheimer’s theory was further refined and developed by Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. 

              C.V.Good defines gestalt-configration, total structure, form or shape, a term designating an undivided articulate as a whole that cannot be made by the more addition of independent elements, the nature of each element depending on its relationship to the whole. 

                                          The term ‘gestalt’ means a whole, a total composition. According to this theory, an individual learns an object as a whole, a single entity, not in parts or bits. In other words, an individual’s understanding of an object comprehends the whole object, not merely parts or bits of the object. This theory can be summed up in the succinct statement: ‘The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.’

II. Life sketch of Kohler

                                        Kohler was born on 21st January, 1887 in the port city of Reval (now Tallinn), Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire. His family was of German origin, and shortly after his birth they moved back to that country. There raised in a setting of teachers, nurses and other scholars he developed lifelong interests in the science as well as the arts and especially in music. In the course of his University Education he studied at the   University of Tubingen (1905-06), the University of Bonn (1906-07) and the University of Berlin (1907-09). In completing his Ph.D. for which his dissertation addressed certain aspects of psychoacoustics. In 1910-13, he was an assistant at the Psychological Institute in Franfurt in which he worked with fellow psychologists; Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka. He immigrated to U S in 1935. And he died on 11th June 1967 in Enfield, New Hampshire.

III. Kohler’s Experiments

In order to establish the existence of insight, Kohler conducted a number of experiments on a chimpanzee named Sultan. Although he conducted a number of other experiments on dogs, hens, and other creatures, his experiments with Sultan were the most noteworthy. Kohler divided his experiment in to four steps.

1. Experiment- Sultan was placed in a cage. A stick was placed in the cage and a banana just outside the cage, but outside Sultans direct reach. Sultan made many attempts to obtain the banana but it failed. It sat down in despair. But, after sometime it suddenly got up, lifted the stick and used it to draw the banana towards itself.

2. Experiment- In the second stage, Kohler placed inside the cage two sticks which could be joined to each other. This time the banana was so placed that it could not be drown by the chimpanzee towards itself with a single stick. After numerous attempts, Sultan joined the two sticks together and succeeded in obtaining the banana.

3. Experiment- In the third step, Kohler hung the banana from the roof of the cage of such a height as to ensure that Sultan could not reach it even by jumping upwards. A box was also placed inside the cage. After many attempts, Sultan climbed up on the box and obtained the bananas.

4. Experiment- In the final step, Kohler placed two boxes at one place in the cage the banana was placed at an even high level. At first, Sultan kept on trying to reach the banana by standing up on one box, but after numerous failures, it placed one box upon the other and claiming quit obtained the banana.

IV. Factors Influencing Insight

                                                      Many experiments have thrown light upon and established the various factors which influence insight. Some of them are mentioned below;

1. Experience - Past experiences help in the insightful solution of the problems. A child cannot solve the problems of Modern Mathematics unless he is well acquainted with its symbolic language.

2. Intelligence – Insightful solution depends upon the basic intelligence of the learner. The more intelligent the individual is the greater will be his insight.

3. Learning Situation – How insightfully the organism will react depends upon the situation in which he has to act. Some situations are more favorable than the others for insightful solution. As a common observation, insight occurs when the learning situation is so arranged that all the necessary aspects are open for observation.

4. Initial Efforts or Trial and Error – Insightful learning has to pass through the process of trial and error. Whatever an activity may be, attempts or efforts or trials always lie at its root. This opens the way for insightful learning.

5. Repetition and Generalization – After having an insightful solution of a particular type of problem, the organism tries to repeat it in another situation, demanding similar type of solution. The way found in one situation helps him to react insightfully in the other identical situations.

V. Characteristics of Insight

                                                 The above mentioned experiments make it quite obvious that learning by insight has certain characteristics of its own. They are briefly as follows;

1. Insight is sudden.

2. Insight alters perception.

3. Old objects appear in new patterns and organization by virtue of insight.

4. Insight is relative to the intellectual level. The higher species of animals including human beings have more insight than the members of lower species.

5. In insight, understanding is more useful than dexterity of hands.

6. Previous experience is of assistance in insight. An organized perception is an essential factor in learning.

7. Maturity also affects insight as evidenced by the smoother working of insight in older age than in adolescence.

8. If the pieces essential for the solution of the puzzle are present together when perceived, insight comes about earlier.

9. Learning by insight is associative learning. Insight appears suddenly after the manipulation of thoughts or objects for a small, through significant length of time.

10. The insight gained in particular circumstances is of assistance in other circumstances.

VI. Principles Involved in Insightful Learning

                                                                               There are principles involved in perceptual organization or insightful learning. Some of the basic laws propounded by Gestalt psychologists are as follows;

1. Law of figure ground: Everything is perceived in the context of its background. Thus, close relationship is there between figure and ground. For example, we try to solve a sum by using the means that closed areas are more stable and satisfying than the unclosed ones. Closed areas form groups very easily. This law is also called law of closure.

2. Law of pragnanz: 

                                  An organism is motivated to learn when there is tension or disequilibrium of forces in the psychological field. Learning is the removal of this tension. When we perceive an object, we find some gaps in our perceptions. These gaps are filled by the perceiver and a whole figure is prepared.

3. Law of continuity: 

Objects having continuity are learnt easily because they can easily make a whole.

4. Law of similarity: 

                                   this law makes the individual to grasp things which are similar. They are picked out as they were from the total context. Similar ideas and experiences get associated. An object revives another object which resembles or looks similar to it. For example, seeing a man and remembering an intimate friend by some resemblance though never saw them together in the past.

5. Law of proximity: this law states the proximate or near together things are picked up first and learnt easily than distant things. In other words, perceptual grounds are favoured according to the nearness of their respective parts. Items tend to form groups if they are spaced together. For instance, a triangle or a circle is understood in this way.

VII. Educational Implications

1. Subject matter (learning material) should be presented in Gestalt form. The plant or flower as a whole be presented before the students and later on the parts should be emphasized.

2. In the organization of the syllabus and planning of the curriculum, the Gestalt principle should be given due consideration. A particular subject should not be treated as the mere collection of isolated facts or topics. It should be closely integrated into a whole. Similarly the curriculum should reflect unity and cohesiveness.

 3. This theory has brought motivation in the fore-front by assigning purpose and motive, the central role in learning process. It is goal oriented. Purpose or goals of learning should be made clear to the students, before the teacher starts teaching.

4.  The greater contribution of the insight theory of learning is that it has made learning an intelligent task requiring mental abilities. It has called a halt to the age old mechanical memorization, drill and practice work which lack in basic understanding and use of thinking, reasoning and creative mental powers.

5. It emphasizes that the learner must be given opportunities for using his mental abilities. Instead of telling him, how to do a work or solve a problem, he should be placed in the position of an independent enquirer and discoverer. He should himself collect the information and discover the knowledge. The teacher should not engage himself in spoon-feeding but help the children in acquiring knowledge and skill through their own attempts by using their mental powers. Scientific and progressive methods like Heuristic method, analytic and problem solving, which advocate the learning by insight, should be made more popular. 

6. If the teacher believes in the theory of insight learning he seeks, to overcome impatience as the moment of insight is unpredictable and sudden. He must give his students a chance to fumble and search for the solution. This fumbling and search is more than trial and error procedure. It is purposeful experimentation. It is a goal directed activity.

7. The teacher must realize the necessity of preliminary steps of experimentation and purposeful search so that the child may become capable of understanding or perceiving cause and effect relationships.

8. As an arrangement of the elements in the situation conditions insight, the teacher determines the methods and order of presentation that will prove most helpful.

9. As insight depends upon capacity, all pupils are not able to use insight in an equal measure. The teacher recognizes differences in capacity and age and understands classroom implications of readiness.

10. The teacher will have build up insight step by step; be it History, Geometry or Language, some insight is sudden but the learner always has partial (glimpses) insight of the total.

11. The function of the teacher is the teaching learning situation to help the child to perceive the goal and the intervening obstacles. If the goal is too difficult in terms of the pupil’s present development, it must be made easier or its pursuit may be delayed. In a situation, where an obstacle blocks the perception or achievement of the goal the teacher may take the following three steps-

a)      Allow the pupil to grow by waiting or by providing preparatory experiences and knowledge that will increase his power.

b)      Make the problem less difficult. Get easier text-books. Use more immediate goals. Find more concrete problems.

c)      Give the pupil some help, offer suggestions, hints, clues, show him how to take specific steps and arrange sequential approach.

12. If the goal is too difficult to reach and the child is forced to achieve it, without making it easier or without delaying its achievement, so the child will develop the tendency to escape. By making the task easier, there shall be partial insights which mean relief from tension.

13. If insight is to be achieved, school-tasks must not be too difficult to perform. They must be appropriate to the understanding of the child on the part of the student and there are more failures in examination, when the work is too difficult for the pupils to achieve insight, or when explanations by the teacher or by the text books are no sufficiently clear. The theory of insight learning lays especial emphasis upon understanding to achieve success.

14.  The teacher should not be frustrated if in spite of his hard labour, pupils show progress and do not understand a particular problem. The progress of growth is always slow.

15. Insight lays emphasis on maturation. If the child is not mature enough let him grow by waiting. Maturation is an important factor in the ability to perceive clearly the relationship in the total situation and thus achieve insight.

16. Development of insight is possible when goal are clearly defined. When the learner accepts the goal, he will exert energy to achieve the goal. The student should be led to discuss both the immediate and ultimate goals of learning. The teacher should preview the activities involved and the problems to be faced. In this way, he should lead the pupil to see the total situation at the beginning. For examples; teaching a novel and teaching Chemistry where preview is needed.

17. The theory helps the learner to develop reasoning, thinking and imagination powers and thus their creative potentials are always encouraged.

VIII. Criticism

Some of the main objections against the gestalt theory are the following;

1. Gestalt is a composite of Psychology and Philosophy of Education.

2. Every kind of learning for example; reading, writing, speaking etc., cannot be satisfactorily explained by the laws of Gestalt.

3. Some scholars opine that the insight inherent in gestalt cannot be ascribed to children and animals because they lack power of thought. However it is often observed in daily life that even very young infants display insight in many of their activities.

4. Trial and error is an essential element in gestalt at one stage or the other.

Or

Educational Implications of Gestalt Theory

1-Problem Solving Approach: This theory emphasis that as the learner is able to solve problems by his insight, meaningful learning, learning by understanding, reasoning, etc. must be encouraged in the school.

2-From Whole to Part: The teacher should present the subject matter as a whole to facilitate insight learning.

3-Integrated Approach: While planning curriculum, gestalt principles should be given due consideration. A particular subject should not be treated as the mere collection of isolated facts. It should be closely integrated into a whole.

4-Importance of Motivation: the teacher should arouse the child’s curiosity, interest and motivation. He should gain full attention of the whole class before teaching.

5-Goal Orientation: As learning is a purposeful and goal oriented task, the learner has to be well acquainted with these objectives.  He should be fully familiar with the goals and purposes of every task.

6-Emphasis on Understanding: It has made learning an intelligent task requiring mental abilities than a stimulus – response association. So the learner must be given opportunities for using his mental abilities.

7-Checking of Previous Experiences: As insight depends upon the  previous experiences of the learner, the teacher must check the previous experiences of the child and relate them with the new learning situation.

X Individual differences:

(a) The teacher keep in mind the intelligence level, maturity and other types of individual differences. Intelligence plays a major role in learning by insight. The more intelligent a child is, the more he will learn through insight. The less intelligent child takes more time and makes more efforts to gain insight.

(b) Insight of the child should be carefully handled by the teacher. He should know that its development is related to the physical maturation of the child. He should present the problem keeping in view the maluratior, of the child.

12. Logical presentation:

The teacher should present his lesson logically. He should proceed from ‘simple to complex’, ‘concrete to abstract’, ’empirical to rational’ and ‘psychological to logical’. The problems presented in the class should be linked with life so that the learners have the greatest benefit out of them.

Gestalt theory was mostly criticized for being too descriptive instead of offering explanations and models for described phenomena, investigating subjective experiences like perception ,lack of precision in descriptions and just qualitative description ,denying the basic scientific approach of understanding a whole as a set of its parts.

4-Skinner Operant Theory

Also k/a-

• Instrumental Conditioning 

• Stimulus-response theory with reinforcement.

• Contingency reinforcement theory

• R-Type theory

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

                          ‘Operant Conditioning Theory’ is a method of learning, which was developed by an American scientist B.F. Skinner. His learning related opinions began to spread almost in 1932 century. His two books ‘The Behavior of Organism’ and ‘Beyond Freedom and Dignity’ are famous. Skinner’s name is mainly known in the list of behavioral scholars. Skinner has described the two types of behaviors, as—

1-Respondent Behavior 

2-Operant Behavior

(1) Respondent Behavior—

                                               This type of behavior lives under control of stimulus. For example, the excreting of saliva after taking food in the mouth is respondent behavior. Other examples of respondent behavior can be given by the experiment of Pavlov in addition of this example, as- to close the eyes after throwing the light, to move away the hand after piercing the pin and to draw away the hand after

touching the hot thing.

(2) Operant Behavior—

                                           This kind of behavior is somewhat different from the above behavior. This behavior is not under the direct control of stimulus. It is embed in the self desire of learner. Operant behavior does not happen until a man is willingly ready for doing this type of behavior. 

            For example:-in the experiment of Skinner, the behavior of rat is operant. In the same way after ringing the bell, opening the door or not depends upon the desire of a man. On ringing the bell, opening the door related behavior is operant behavior. In the experiment of Skinner, for getting the reward, rat operates the lever.Therefore this type of learning is called Instrumental Conditioning.

The Meaning of Operant—In the Skinner’ theory, the operant means, action producing response or the collection of responses, by which a man attains goal and he something gets from it. This is such a learning behavior, which is used as an instrument of getting reward and outcome.

 Prof. K.P. Pandey has given the definition of operant in the following way—

                     ‘’An operant is technically defined as a group of responses or set of acts which are controlled by the similar consequences.’’

Prof. S.S. Chauhan has defined operant in the following way—

              ‘’The term operant emphasizes the fact that behavior operates upon the environment to generate its own consequences.’’

              This conclusion comes from the above opinions that operant is the some kind of behavior, but this behavior does not remain under the control of its former stimulus. It is the quality of operant behavior, that it is operated on the environment and generates outcome. According to Skinner, operant behavior

is generated by the man not by stimulus. He has used the word ‘operant’ for this reaction.

              Skinner has presented the opinion of S type conditioning in place of R type of conditioning, which means—the conditioning and connection of outcome of response with the attainment, with the help of it operant conditioning theory is derived, so now the opinion of operant conditioning theory should be understood. The opinion of operant conditioning theory is following—

Skinner—“Behavior is the movement of an organism or of it part in a frame of reference provided by the organism itself.”

                  “Operant conditioning is the learning process where by a response is made more probable or more frequent.”

The experiment of Skinner:-      

An experiment done on the rats is following—

                                                                           Skinner prepared a box for experiment which is called Skinner’s box. A lever was added with this box. Which was connected to a bowl, and by the side of lever there was a hole for the entering of rats. After pressing the lever the sound ‘khatt’ was echoed, and food come into the bowl. In this box a white hungry rat entered into the box by the path, prepared by the side of lever. Rat wandered here and there and leapt and jumped, naturally the lever was pressed by rat. Food came into the bowl with the sound of khatt. Rat ate the food. Naturally the lever was pressed again by the rat and food came with the sound of khatt, which was again eaten by rat. Later on pressing the lever and having the food, it was seen that rat started to live by the side of lever, pressing the lever, eating the arrived food, the rat was set with comfort. After the repetitions of this experiment, Skinner saw that on being hungry, rat began to press the lever. This conclusion was found from this experiment Notes that “if any strength providing stimulus is got after any action, there is growth in the strength of that action.”

He did his second experiment on the pigeons. Skinner used another special technique for the experiment on the pigeons, which is called pigeon Box. The experiments done on the pigeon, Skinner put this aim that pigeon, after completing a whole round from the right side, learnt to peck on a certain place. With this experiment, hungry pigeon which was imprisoned in the pigeon box, as soon as flying toward the right side and started to peck on the certain place, he got a grain of wheat. By this wheat it got strength for the repetition of its behavior, and moving towards the right side it respond to peck the beak.

                            Consequently he got a grain of wheat and that’s why the pigeon learnt the way to get the grain (food) by the pecking beak and moving toward the right side.

Skinner gave birth to a new conditioning theory in the field of learning by his experiments. He found the conclusion that our learning related behavior is moved by the operant conditioning. Our behavior and response is like operant conditioning to some extent. Skinner gives a lot of importance to reinforcement in his experiment, on which, his learning theory depends. So it is necessary to understand the opinions on reinforcement.

Reinforcement:- “A reinforcement is a stimulus event which if it the proper temporal relation with a response, tends to maintain or the strength or a response or of a stimulus response connection.”

Types of Reinforcement

the types of reinforcement can be divided into two groups— 

(A) In Group :-

                          (1) Positive Reinforcement (2) Negative Reinforcement 

(B) In Group 

                          (1) Primary Reinforcement (2) Secondary Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement—Positive Reinforcement includes those stimuli of Reinforcement whose presences increase the strength of response. As—Food, is a positive reinforcement for a hungry man. In the positive Reinforcement, a man does some positive response for getting something. It is signed by S+. 

Negative Reinforcement—

                                                    Negative Reinforcement includes those stimuli Reinforcement whose absence help in the development of growth. As—if a child does not eat the food under the fear of dog, after going away of the dog he eats the food. In this condition the absence of dog is negative reinforcement. It is signed by S—.

              Often punishment is taken as a negative Reinforcement, but there is difference between them. Negative Reinforcement develops the strength of any response with its absence while punishment makes the strength of any response weaker. Punishment diminishes the probability of this happening in a response.

Primary Reinforcement—In the Primary Reinforcement, Reinforcer is that stimulus whose presence makes any response stronger, and its relation is established with the needed physical arrangement as hunger, thirst, work, security. For example rat gets the food after pressing the lever.

Secondary Reinforcement—Secondary Reinforcement includes those stimuli of response, which make strength of making any response stronger due to their continued presence with the primary Reinforcement, means secondary Reinforcement are those Reinforcement which do not have the capability in themselves but joining with the primary Reinforcement, they get the capability of doing Reinforcement. For example in the primary Reinforcement if sound is echoed with the food, then sound even without food, does the response of Reinforcement, it is called conditioning Reinforcement.

(a) Continuous and Non-Intermittent Schedules—In which each emitted response is reinforced and there is extinction without being reinforced. 

(b) Partial or intermittent Schedules—In which, only the partial schedule of response is followed by the reinforcement. 

On the basis of above schedules, following four types of schedules can be developed-

 (1) Fixed–Ratio Schedule—It is called in brief FR. In it, a man is reinforced for a response after many fixed response. As—After the five responses, the reinforcement of one response. Here the average is 5 : 1

(2) Variable-Ratio Schedule—In brief it is called VR. In the arrangement of this schedule, the counting Notes of expected response is changed into average margin for the Reinforcement. As—once fourth response is reinforced in the second time six and third time first response was reinforced

(3) Fixes Interval Schedule—In short it is called FI. In which the Reinforcement of response is done on a fixed interval time, As – To do Reinforcement after five minutes. 

(4) Variable Interval Schedule—In short it is called VI. In which the Reinforcement of response is done on variable interval time. As—to do the reinforcement of any response sometime 2 seconds and sometimes fives seconds and sometimes after the eight seconds.

The Effect of Reinforcement—In the process of Reinforcement, the following effects come from the reinforcement factors:

 (1) To make a behavior stronger. 

(2) To make sides fi xed for providing any happening of the behavior. 

(3) Changes take place in the behavior immediately. The changed behavior is stable for some time and it becomes weaker in the absence of the further reinforcement and finally it disappears. 

The Use of Reinforcement Theory in the Education—

                There are the following uses in the Reinforcement theory—

 (1) This theory is very important in the education, because it forces on the activity of children. 

(2) This theory strengthens the notion that on the notion any activity can be increased the children by awarding the specific prize.

 (3) A child can be prepared for the satisfaction of result forever after considering this theory. 

(4) Giving prize and appreciation has an important place in giving education to the child. 

(5) By the effect of this theory, changing educational method according to its need, a child’s interest can be awaken towards the study

Implication of the theory of operant conditioning:

1.Conditioning study behaviour: 

Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement, which expedite learning. For effective teaching teacher should arranged effective contingenciesof reinforcement. Example: For Self learning of a student teacher should reinforce student behaviour through variety of incentives such as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting on the back or by giving higher marks.

2. Conditioning and classroom behaviour: 

During learning process child acquire unpleasant experiences also. This unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject and the classroom and learner dislikes the subject and a teacher.Suitable behavioural contingencies, atmosphere of recognition,acceptance, affection and esteem helps child in approaching teacher and the subject. If student is not serious in study, teacher make use of negative reinforcement like showing negligence, criticising student etc. but if student is serious in study, teachermake use of positive reinforcement like prize, medal, praise and smile

3-Managing Problem Behaviour: 

Two types of behaviour is seenin the classroom viz undesired behaviour and problematicbehaviour. Operant conditioning is a behaviour therapy techniquethat shape students behaviour. For this teacher should admitpositive contingencies like praise, encouragement etc. for learning.One should not admit negative contingencies. 

Example punishment(student will run away from the dull and dreary classes – escape stimulation.

4.Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: 

Through conditioning fear, anxieties, prejudices, attitudes, perceptual meaning develops. Examples of anxiety are signals on the road,siren blown during wartime, child receiving painful injection from adoctor. Anxiety is a generalized fear response. To break the habits of fear, a teacher should use desensitization techniques. Initially teacher should provide very weak form of conditioned stimulus.Gradually the strength of stimulus should be increased.

5. Conditioning group behaviour:

Conditioning makes entire group learn and complete change in behaviour is seen due to reinforcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial behaviour too.

Example: Putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make teachers annoyed in such circumstances students learn to keep mum in the class. Asking questions, active participation in class discussion will make the teacher feel happy – interaction willincrease and teaching learning process becomes more effective.

6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: 

Reinforcement is given in different form, for the progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When response is correct, positive reinforcement is

given. 

Example: A student who stands first in the class in the month of January is rewarded in the month of December. To over comethis Programme instruction is used. In this subject matter is brokendown into steps. Organizing in logical sequence helps in learning. Each step is build upon the preceding step. Progress is seen in the process of learning. Immediate reinforcement is given at each step.

7.Shaping Complex Behaviour: 

Complex behaviour exists in form of a chain of small behaviour. Control is required for such kind of  behaviour. This extended form of learning is shaping technique.Smallest Behaviour is controlled at initial stage. On behalf of different contingencies, next order of chain of behaviours is controlled. Example: Vocabulary in English. Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex form of behaviour.

Sr.No.	Classical Conditioning	Oprent Conditioning
1-	Classical conditioning was developed by Russian psychologist Povlov and it is called Pavlovian respondent learning.it help in learning of respondent behavior. It is also known as classical respondent conditioning.	Operant conditioning was developed by B.F Skinner and is called Skinnerian or operant learning.it help in the learning of operant behaviour
2-	it is called Type S conditioning to emphasize the importance of stimulus in eliciting desired  response.	It is called Type R Conditioning because of the emphasis on the response.
3-	Beginning is made with the help of specific stimuli that brings certain responses.	Beginning is made with the responses as they occur naturally or unnaturally,shaping them into existence
4-	There are is a definite connection between the stimulus and the response. It is the stimulus which elicited a particular response. In it reinforcement is provided by the unconditional stimulus.	The conditioned response cannot be correlated with any known stimulus.It is emitted by the organism
5-	In it the does  C.R and U.R.are the same.	In it the response causes conditioned reinforcement to appear.Reinforcement cannot fallow unless the conditioned response is given. So in operant conditioning reinforcement is contingent upon conditioned response.
6-	It measures respondent behaviour or involuntary behaviour of The autonomic Nervous system.	It measures operant behavior or voluntary behavior of the central nervous system.
7-	In the environment acts upon the organism. Respondent behaviour depends upon continuity or stimulus conditioning at the start of training. The association between stimulus and response is on the basis of law continuity. hence classic classical conditioning is governed by law of continuity.	In it the organism acts upon the environment operant behavior depends upon the consequences. thus association between stimulus and response (S-R) is on the basis of law of effect. Hence operant conditioning is governed by law of effect
8-	There is Pairing of unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus.	There is no Pairing of unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus. but pairing of a response and the reinforcing stimulus which follow.
9-	Bond between specific U.C.S and C.S. is estabilized.	Tendency to respond in a specific manner is developed.
10.	The essence of learning is stimulus substitution	The essence of learning is response modification.
11-	it is stimulus oriented	It is response-oriented
12.	It focus on the single stimulus response bondage.	It is concerned with sequence of responses.A chain of response is formed which leads to the desied goal.
13-	unconditioned stimulus is presented regardless of whether the conditioned stimulus occurs	The stimulus is presented  only if the organism makes the desired response.
14	The Classically conditioned reflexes may have zero strength initially.	The operant cannot  have zero strength because it has to occur at least once before it can be reinforced.

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note: exprimental image sourse from google online